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Indigenous cuisine of the Americas

Indigenous cuisine of the Americas includes all cuisines and food practices of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Contemporary Native peoples retain a varied culture of traditional foods, along with the addition of some post-contact foods that have become customary and even iconic of present-day Indigenous American social gatherings (for example, frybread). Foods like cornbread, turkey, cranberry, blueberry, hominy, and mush have been adopted into the cuisine of the broader United States population from Native American cultures.

Wild rice is a native traditional food of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, and some areas of North Dakota.[1]

In other cases, documents from the early periods of Indigenous American contact with European, African, and Asian peoples have allowed the recovery and revitalization of Indigenous food practices that had formerly passed out of popularity.

The most important Indigenous American crops have generally included Indian corn (or maize, from the Taíno name for the plant), beans, squash, pumpkins, sunflowers, wild rice, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, peanuts, avocados, papayas, potatoes and chocolate.[1]

Indigenous cuisine of the Americas uses domesticated and wild native ingredients.[2] As the Americas cover a large range of biomes, and there are more than 574 currently federally recognized Native American tribes in the US alone, Indigenous cuisine can vary significantly by region and culture.[3][failed verification][4] For example, North American Native cuisine differs from Southwestern and Mexican cuisine in its simplicity and directness of flavor.

Indigenous cuisine of North America edit

Country food edit

Country food, in Canada, refers to the traditional diets of the Indigenous peoples in Canada (known in Canada as First Nations, Metis, and Inuit), especially in remote northern regions where Western food is an expensive import, and traditional foods are still relied upon.[5][6][7]

The Government of the Northwest Territories estimated in 2015 that nearly half of Northwest Territories residents in smaller communities relied on country food for 75% of their meat and fish intake; in larger communities, the percentage was lower, with the lowest percentage relying on country foods (4%) being in Yellowknife, the capital and only "large community".

The most common country foods in the Northwest Territories area include mammals and birds (caribou, moose, ducks, geese, seals, hare, grouse, ptarmigan), fish (lake trout, char, inconnu, whitefish, pike, burbot) and berries (blueberries, cranberries, blackberries, cloudberries).[8]

In the eastern Canadian Arctic, Inuit consume a diet of foods that are fished, hunted, and gathered locally. This may include caribou, walrus, ringed seal, bearded seal, beluga whale, polar bear, berries, and fireweed.

The cultural value attached to certain game species, and certain parts, varies. For example, in the James Bay region, a 1982 study found that beluga whale meat was principally used as dog food, whereas the blubber, or muktuk was a "valued delicacy".[9] Value also varies by age, with Inuit preferring younger ring seals, and often using the older ones for dog food.[10]

Contaminants in country foods are a public health concern in Northern Canada; volunteers are tested to track the spread of industrial chemicals from emitters (usually in the South) into the northern food web via the air and water.[11][12]

In 2017, the Government of the Northwest Territories committed to using country foods in the soon-to-open Stanton Territorial Hospital, despite the challenges of obtaining, inspecting, and preparing sufficient quantities of wild game and plants.[13]

In Southern Canada, wild foods (especially meats) are relatively rare in restaurants, due to wildlife conservation rules against selling hunted meat, as well as strict meat inspection rules. There is a cultural divide between rural and remote communities that rely on wild foods, and urban Canadians (the majority), who have little or no experience with them.[14]

 
A 19th-century illustration, "Sugar-Making Among the Indians in the North". Aboriginal peoples living in the northeastern part of North America were the first people known to have produced maple syrup and maple sugar

Eastern Native American cuisine edit

 
Corn was a vital source of food for Indigenous communities across the Northern Hemisphere. Sophisticated farming techniques were used to cultivate the crop throughout the American continent.

The essential staple foods of the Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands have traditionally been corn (also known as maize), beans, and squash, known as "The Three Sisters" because they were planted interdependently: the beans grew up the tall stalks of the corn, while the squash spread out at the base of the three plants and provided protection and support for the root systems.

Maple syrup is another essential food staple of the Eastern Woodlands peoples. Tree sap is collected from sugar maple trees during the beginning of springtime when the nights are still cold.[15] Birch bark containers are used in the process of making maple syrup, maple cakes, maple sugar, and maple taffy. When the sap is boiled to a certain temperature, different variations of maple food products are created. When the sap starts to thicken, it can be poured into the snow to make taffy.[16]

Since the first colonists of New England had to adapt their foods to the local crops and resources, the Native influences of Southern New England Algonquian cuisine form a significant part of New England cuisine with dishes such as cornbread, succotash and Johnnycakes and ingredients such as corn, cranberries and local species of clam still enjoyed in the region today.[17]

The Wabanaki tribal nations and other eastern woodlands peoples have made nut milk and infant formula made from nuts and cornmeal,[18][19][20] while the Cherokee nation made Kanuchi soup from hickory nuts.[21]

Southeastern Native American cuisine edit

Southeastern Native American culture has contributed to the formation of Southern cuisine from its origins through the present day. From Southeastern Native American culture came one of the main staples of the Southern diet: corn (maize), either ground into meal or limed with an alkaline salt to make hominy, using a Native American technique known as nixtamalization.[22] Corn is used to make all kinds of dishes such as the familiar cornbread and grits.

Though a less important staple, potatoes were also adopted from Native American cuisine and have been used in many ways similar to corn. Native Americans introduced the first non-Native American Southerners to many other vegetables still familiar on southern tables. Squash, pumpkin, many types of beans, many types of peppers, and sassafras all came to the settlers via Indigenous peoples. The Virginia Algonquian word pawcohiccora means hickory-nut meat or a nut milk drink made from it.

Many fruits are available in this region. Muscadines, blackberries, raspberries, and many other wild berries were part of Southern Native Americans' diet.

To a far greater degree than anyone realizes, several of the most important food dishes of the Southeastern Indians live on today in the "soul food" eaten by both black and white Southerners. Hominy, for example, is still eaten ... Sofkee lives on as grits ... cornbread [is] used by Southern cooks ... Indian fritters ... variously known as "hoe cake", ... or "Johnny cake." ... Indians boiled cornbread is present in Southern cuisine as "corn meal dumplings", ... and as "hush puppies", ... Southerns cook their beans and field peas by boiling them, as did the Indians ... like the Indians they cure their meat and smoke it over hickory coals.

— Charles Hudson, The Southeastern Indians[23]

Southeastern Native Americans traditionally supplement their diets with meats derived from the hunting of native game. Venison has always been an important meat staple, due to the abundance of white-tailed deer in the area. Rabbits, squirrels, opossums, and raccoons are also common.

Livestock, adopted from Europeans, in the form of hogs and cattle, are also kept. Aside from the more commonly consumed parts of the animal, it is traditional to also eat organ meats such as liver, brains, and intestines. Many of the early settlers were taught Southeastern Native American cooking methods.

Selected dishes edit

  • Cornbread
  • Hominy, coarsely ground corn used to make grits
  • Hush puppy, small, savory, deep-fried round ball made from cornmeal-based batter
  • Indian fritter
  • Kanuchi, soup made from ground hickory nuts
  • Livermush, pig liver, parts of pig heads, cornmeal and spices
  • Sofkee, corn soup or drink, sour[24]

Great Plains Native American cuisine edit

Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies or Plains Indians have historically relied heavily on American bison (American buffalo) as a staple food source. One traditional method of preparation is to cut the meat into thin slices then dry it, either over a slow fire or in the hot sun, until it is hard and brittle. In this form it can last for months, making it a main ingredient to be combined with other foods, or eaten on its own.

One such use could be pemmican, a concentrated mixture of fat and protein, and fruits such as cranberries, Saskatoon berries, blueberries, cherries, chokecherries, and currants are sometimes added. Many parts of the bison were utilized and prepared in numerous ways, including: "boiled meat, tripe soup perhaps thickened with brains, roasted intestines, jerked/smoked meat, and raw kidneys, liver, tongue sprinkled with gall or bile were eaten immediately after a kill."[25]

The animals that Great Plains Indians consumed, like bison, deer, and antelope, were grazing animals. Due to this, they were high in omega-3 fatty acids, an essential acid that many diets lack.[26]

When asked to state traditional staple foods, a group of Plains elders identified prairie turnips (Pediomelum esculentum, syn. Psoralea esculenta), called timpsula or tin'psila in the Lakota language group; fruits (chokecherries, June berries, plums, blueberries, cranberries, strawberries, buffalo berries, gooseberries); potatoes; squash; dried meats (venison, buffalo, jack rabbit, and prairie chicken); and wild rice as being these staple foods.[27]

"We landed at a Watlala village 200 men of Flatheads of 25 houses 50 canoes built of Straw, we were treated verry kindly by them, they gave us round root near the size of a hens egg roasted which they call Wap-to (wapato) to eate . . . . which they roasted in the embers until they became Soft"

—William Clark, Lewis and Clark Expedition

Wapato (Sagittaria latifolia) has a number of varieties and is found growing in damp marsh area around ponds, lakes, rivers, and streams. The edible rhizomes were gathered and could be roasted in the embers of a fire, or dried, ground and the meal pressed into a cake which "served well as bread" as noted by Meriwether Lewis of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. They are known today as broadleaf arrowhead, arrowhead, duckroot, or duck-potato.

Western Indigenous cuisine edit

In the Pacific Northwest, traditional diets include salmon and other fish, seafood, mushrooms, berries, roots and tubers, and meats such as deer, duck, and rabbit.

In contrast to the Easterners, the Northwestern peoples are traditionally hunter-gatherers, primarily. The generally mild climate led to the development of an economy based on year-round abundant food supplies, rather than having to rely upon seasonal agriculture. Yet, Native American tribes of California still relied on storing food for winter seasons, which included "nuts, seeds, and dried meat and fish".[28] Since animals migrated, vegetation is seasonal, and also weather needs to be taken into account.

In what is now California, acorns can be ground into a flour that has at times served as the principal foodstuff for about 75 percent of the population,[29] and dried meats can be prepared during the dry season.[30] It seems that acorns and other nuts took priority among indigenous tribes because of the archaeological evidence of "mortars and pestles".[31] Grinding acorns requires a lot of resources and time to gather and process them. Which implies an area where location is more permanent. When it came to gathering acorns it took everyone in the tribe because within weeks they would become mature. There was communal participation when it came to obtaining food. Soups and bread were made from the grinding of acorns.[28]

California like other parts of the states, and across the world goes through seasonal stages. Indigenous tribes along the California region were able to use "over 500 species of plants and animals for food".[28] Before contact with indigenous tribes and colonizers, there were vast resources for subsistence that were diverse among varying regions of California.

Archaeological methods suggest the use of flames and cutting materials altered bones from rodents.[32] The presence of rodent bones in Quiroste archaeological sites suggests that the Quiroste people ate rodents. The abundance of rodents may have made them a convenient food source.

Deer and seal bones are also found in indigenous communities.[32] This means that the diet is varied, as seals are found near the coast and deer are found further inland. Indigenous tribes that were closer to inland would consume land-based animals, and those closer to the coast would consume more marine-based animals.

Other evidence is through the use of screening that found anchovies to be a source of food for indigenous people.[32] This is a valuable discovery because anchovies are difficult to come by due to their fragile bones. Indigenous cuisine is not limited to salmon as a primary source of protein.

Indigenous tribes were consuming the meat of shellfish with the implication of "bi-pitted cobbles".[31] As cuisine differs between regions so do the tools used for obtaining those proteins. In this case, the meat of shellfish required stone tools to crack open the shells. Which can lead to eating more shellfish-based cuisines.

The consumption of marrow from animal bones is evident from archaeological analyses of "hand axes made from andesitic and quartzitic cobbles".[31] Obtaining bone marrow from an animal requires both time and resources, as it is located in the center of the bone and requires extra effort to extract. When food requires extra effort to obtain, it is given more value.

The "destruction of Native California", was done by the missionaries taking over the indigenous land and clearing the environment for their own cultural foodways.[33] This caused some indigenous tribes to become dependent on missionaries for survival. Archaeological evidence shows that some indigenous tribes were eating cattle because of the reliance they had on missionaries.[34]

Although some tribes relied on the food from missionaries, they still hunted for their own food from the evidence of birds found that know to migrate to the area seasonally.[34] Although they were fed by missionaries, they required more food. That's when their own ways of foodways came into play for hunting and preparing the food they captured.

As previously mentioned there was a large variety of food available in California. However native tribes living along the confines of missionaries were only able to gather "wheat, maize, barley, and peach".[28] That's if the surrounding areas were equipped to grow them.

Food not only played an important role in subsistence but also an important role in ceremonies especially to mourn someone's death.[34] Foods not only play an important role in survival but maintain cultural costumes and traditions going for personal and generational knowledge.

The preparation for making atole was done by toasting the wheat before it was granulated.[28]

While indigenous food may appear to be a thing of the past, there are still indigenous people who are keeping their traditions alive through modern cuisine. Crystal Wahpepah sees her kitchen as a way to promote indigenous "food sovereignty and the reclamation of ancestral knowledge".[35]

Southwestern Indigenous cuisine edit

Ancestral Puebloans of the present-day Four Corners region of the United States, comprising Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, initially practiced subsistence agriculture by cultivating maize, beans, squash, sunflower seeds, and pine nuts from the pinyon pine, and game meat including venison and cuniculture, and freshwater fish such as Rio Grande cutthroat trout and rainbow trout are also traditional foods in the region.[citation needed]

Ancestral Puebloans are also known for their basketry and pottery, indicating both an agricultural surplus that needed to be carried and stored, and clay pot cooking. Grinding stones have been used to grind maize into meal for cooking. Archaeological digs indicate a very early domestication of turkeys for food.[citation needed]

New Mexican cuisine is heavily rooted in both Pueblo and Hispano food traditions, and is a prevalent cuisine in the American Southwest, especially in New Mexico.[citation needed]

The 2002 Foods of the Southwest Indian Nations won a James Beard Award, the first Native American cookbook so honored.[36][37] Publishers had told the author, Lois Ellen Frank, that there was no such thing as Native American cuisine.[38]

Alaska Native cuisine edit

Alaska Native cuisine consists of nutrient-dense foods such as seal, fish (salmon), and moose. Along with these, berries (huckleberries) and bird eggs are traditionally consumed by Alaska Natives.[39]

Seal, walruses, and polar bears are the large game that Alaska Natives hunt. Smaller game includes whitefish, Arctic char, Arctic hare, and ptarmigan.

Due to weather, edible plants like berries are only available to be consumed in the summer, so people have a diet very high in fat and protein, but low in carbohydrates.

The game that is hunted is also used for clothing. The intestines of large mammals are used to make waterproof clothing and caribou fur is used to make warm clothing.[40]

Dishes edit

 
Cornbread
 
Succotash
 
Drying salmon filets
 
Pemmican Ball
  • Piki bread, from the Hopi people
  • Psindamoakan, a Lenape hunter's food made of parched cornmeal mixed with maple sugar
  • Pueblo bread[51]
  • Salted salmon, an Inuit dish of brined salmon in a heavy concentration of salt water, left for months to soak up salts
  • Sapan (pronounced [ˈsaːpːʌn]),[52] cornmeal mush, a staple of Lenape cuisine
  • Stink fish, an Inuit dish of dried fish, kept underground until ripe, for later consumption; also done with fish heads
  • Succotash, a dish of beans and corn
  • Sumac lemonade,[53] a Native American beverage made from sumac berries
  • Tiswin, a term used for several fermented beverages in the Southwest, including a corn or fruit beer of the Apache and a saguaro fruit beer of the Tohono O'odham
  • Walrus flipper soup, an Inuit dish made from walrus flippers
  • Wojapi, a Plains Indian pudding of mashed, cooked berries

Restaurants edit

Indigenous cuisine of the Circum-Caribbean edit

 
Jerk chicken with plaintains, rice and honey biscuit

This region comprises the cultures of the Arawaks, the Caribs, and the Ciboney. The Taíno of the Greater Antilles were the first New World people to encounter Columbus. Prior to European contact, these groups foraged, hunted, and fished. The Taíno cultivated cassava, sweet potato, maize, beans, squash, pineapple, peanut, and peppers. Today these cultural groups have mostly assimilated into the surrounding population, but their culinary legacy lives on.

  • Ajiaco, same as pepperpot, a soup believed to have originated in Cuba before Columbus' arrival. The soup mixes a variety of meats, tubers, and peppers.
  • Barbacoa, the origin of the English word barbecue, a method of slow-grilling meat over a fire pit.
  • Jerk, a style of cooking meat that originated with the Taíno of Jamaica. Meat was applied with a dry rub of allspice, Scotch bonnet pepper, and perhaps additional spices, before being smoked over fire or wood charcoal.
  • Casabe, a crispy, thin flatbread made from cassava root widespread in the Pre-Columbian Caribbean and Amazonia.
  • Bammy, a Jamaican bread made from cassava and water, today this bread is fried and made with coconut milk.
  • Guanime, a Puerto Rican food similar to the tamale; made with cornmeal or cornmeal and mashed cassave together.
  • Pasteles, a dish that may have also been called hallaca and originated from Puerto Rico. Pasteles were once made with cassava and taro mashed into a masa onto a taro leaf. They are then stuffed with meat and wrapped.
  • Funche or fungi, a cornmeal mush.
  • Cassareep, a sauce, condiment, or thickening agent made by boiling down the extracted juices of bitter cassava root.
  • Mama Juana, a tea made in Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti).
  • Pepperpot, a spicy stew of Taíno origin based on meat, vegetables, chili peppers, and boiled-down cassava juice, with a legacy stretching from Cuba, Colombia coast and to Guyana.
  • Bush teas, popular as herbal remedies in the Virgin Islands and other parts of the Caribbean, often derived from indigenous sources, such as ginger thomas, soursop, inflammation bush, kenip, wormgrass, worry wine, and many other leaves, barks, and herbs.
  • Ouicou, a fermented, cassava-based beer brewed by the Caribs of the Lesser Antilles.[citation needed]
  • Taumali or taumalin, a Carib sauce made from the green liver meat of lobsters, chile pepper, and lime juice.

Indigenous cuisine of Mesoamerica edit

 
Tamales
 
Pupusas

The pre-conquest cuisine of the Indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica made a major contribution to shaping modern-day Mexican cuisine, Belizean cuisine, Salvadoran cuisine, Honduran cuisine, Guatemalan cuisine. The cultures involved included the Aztec, Maya, Olmec, Pipil and many more (see the List of pre-Columbian civilizations).

Some known dishes edit

Indigenous cuisine of South America edit

 
Roast guinea pig (cuy)
 
Ceviche
 
Cheese-filled arepa
 
Chipa, cheese bread

Andean cultures edit

This currently includes recipes known from the Quechua, Aymara and Nazca of the Andes.

  • Grilled guinea pig, a native to most of the Andes region, this small rodent has been cultivated for at least 4000 years.
  • Fried green tomatoes, a nightshade relative native to Peru.
  • Saraiaka, a corn liquor.
  • Chicha, a generic name for any number of Indigenous beers found in South America. Though chichas made from various types of corn are the most common in the Andes, chicha in the Amazon Basin frequently use manioc. Variations found throughout the continent can be based on amaranth, quinoa, peanut, potato, coca, and many other ingredients.
  • Chicha morada, a Peruvian, sweet, unfermented drink made from purple corn, fruits, and spices.
  • Colada morada, a thickened, spiced fruit drink based on the Andean blackberry, traditional to the Day of the Dead ceremonies held in Ecuador, it is typically served with guagua de pan, a bread shaped like a swaddled infant (formerly made from cornmeal in Pre-Columbian times), though other shapes can be found in various regions.
  • Quinoa porridge.
  • Ch'arki, a type of dried meat.
  • Humitas, similar to modern-day tamales, a thick mixture of corn, herbs and onion, cooked in a corn-leaf wrapping. The name is modern, meaning bow-tie, because of the shape in which it's wrapped.
  • Locro (from the Quechua ruqru) is a hearty thick stew popular along the Andes mountain range. It is one of the national dishes of Argentina and Bolivia.
  • Mazamorra morada, a thick, sweet pudding made from ground purple corn and fruit. Sold in mix form in Peru.[56]
  • Mate de coca, a Peruvian tea made from steeped coca leaves. It is commonly sipped by Indigenous people living at high altitudes in the Andes to prevent elevation illnesses.
  • Pachamanca, stew cooked in a hautía oven.
  • Papa a la Huancaína, Peruvian potatoes covered in a spicy, peanut-based sauce called Huancaína (Wan-ka-EE-na) sauce.
  • Patasca, spicy stew made from boiled maize, potatoes, and dried meat.[57]
  • Ceviche, raw fish marinated in lime juice. One of Peru's national dishes.
  • Cancha or tostada, fried golden hominy.
  • Llajwa, salsa of Bolivia.
  • Llapingachos, mashed-potato cakes from Ecuador.
  • Tocosh (togosh), a traditional Quechua food prepared from fermented potato pulp.

Other South American cultures edit

Cooking utensils edit

 
Metate and mano

The earliest utensils, including bowls, knives, spoons, grinders, and griddles, were made from all kinds of materials, such as rock and animal bone. Gourds were also initially cultivated, hollowed, and dried to be used as bowls, spoons, ladles, and storage containers.

Many Indigenous cultures also developed elaborate ceramics for making bowls and cooking pots, and basketry for making containers. Nobility in the Andean and Mesoamerican civilizations were even known to have utensils and vessels smelted from gold, silver, copper, or other minerals.

  • Batan, an Andean grinding slab used in conjunction with a small stone uña
  • Burén, a clay griddle used by the Taíno.
  • Comal, a griddle used since Pre-Columbian times in Mexico and Central America for a variety of purposes, especially to cook tortillas.
  • Cuia, a gourd used for drinking mate in South America.
  • Metate, a stone grinding slab used with a stone mano or metlapil to process meal in Mesoamerica and one of the most notable Pre-Columbian artifacts in Costa Rica.
  • Molinillo, a device used by Mesoamerican royalty for frothing cacao drinks.
  • Molcajete, a basalt stone bowl, used with a tejolote to grind ingredients as a Mesoamerican form of mortar and pestle.
  • Paila, an Andean earthenware bowl.
  • Cooking baskets were woven from a variety of local fibers and sometimes coated with clay to improve durability. The notable thing about basket cooking and some native clay pot cooking is that the heat source, i.e. hot stones or charcoal, is used inside the utensil rather than outside. (Also see Cookware and bakeware.)

Crops and ingredients edit

 
A russet potato with sprouts
 
The bean pods of the mesquite (above) can be dried and ground into flour, adding a sweet, nutty taste to breads
 
A maple syrup tap
 
Several large pumpkins
 
Acorns of sessile oak. The acorn, or oak nut, is the nut of the oaks and their close relatives (genera Quercus and Lithocarpus, in the family Fagaceae).

Plant-based foods edit

Fungi edit

Animals edit

 
Bison cow and calf
 
Moose

Notable chefs, restaurateurs, and food writers edit

See also edit

References edit

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  2. ^ "Welcome to NativeTech: Indigenous Food and Traditional Recipes". NativeTech: Native American Technology & Art. from the original on February 19, 2009. Retrieved August 23, 2008.
  3. ^ . The Native American Culinary Association. Archived from the original on April 22, 2007.
  4. ^ Severson, Kim (November 23, 2005). "Native Foods Nourish Again". The New York Times. Retrieved January 21, 2015.
  5. ^ Usher, Peter J (1976). "Evaluating Country Food in the Northern Native Economy" (PDF). Arctic. Arctic Institute of North America. 29 (2): 105–120. doi:10.14430/arctic2795. JSTOR 40509261. (PDF) from the original on June 30, 2020. Retrieved November 25, 2022.
  6. ^ Wein, Eleanor E.; et al. (1990). "Food Consumption Patterns and Use of Country Foods by Native Canadians near Wood Buffalo National Park, Canada". Arctic. 44 (3): 196–206. doi:10.14430/arctic1539.
  7. ^ http://www.enr.gov.nt.ca/sites/enr/files/weights_of_wildlife.pdf December 31, 2019, at the Wayback Machine "in deriving estimates of the economic value of wildlife used as food (known in northern Canada as country food or traditional food)..." page 2
  8. ^ "18.4 Trends in country food use in NWT regions". NWT State of the Environment Report (Report). Government of Northwest Territories. 2022. Retrieved November 25, 2022.
  9. ^ http://www.enr.gov.nt.ca/sites/enr/files/weights_of_wildlife.pdf December 31, 2019, at the Wayback Machine page 16
  10. ^ Ashley, pg 22
  11. ^ Williams, Ollie (January 25, 2016). "Country food contaminants: NWT residents undergo tests". 100.1 True North FM. from the original on August 23, 2018. Retrieved November 25, 2022.
  12. ^ Brandow, Danielle (October 22, 2018). "Country Food Consumption Notices: Assessing Awareness and Preferences of Health and Risk Communication Messages in the Sahtú Region of the Northwest Territories". from the original on May 2, 2023. Retrieved May 2, 2023. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  13. ^ Brockman, Alex (September 21, 2017). "Traditional Indigenous food in a hospital? That's the plan for new N.W.T. Facility". CBC News. from the original on March 28, 2019. Retrieved November 25, 2022.
  14. ^ "Kill What You Eat". April 10, 2017. from the original on March 20, 2019. Retrieved February 20, 2019.
  15. ^ "Maple Sugarbush Questions and Answers" (PDF). University of Minnesota Duluth. (PDF) from the original on August 19, 2019. Retrieved December 15, 2018.
  16. ^ Nerburn, Kent (Project Director) (1991). We Choose To Remember: More Memories of the Red Lake Ojibwe People. Bemidji, Minnesota: Arrow Printing. p. 8.
  17. ^ Freedman, P. (2019). American Cuisine: And How It Got This Way. (pp. 1-40). New York, NY: Liveright Publishing. ISBN 978-1631494628
  18. ^ a b Kamila, Avery Yale (November 8, 2020). "Wabanaki Enjoying Nut Milk and Butter for Centuries". Portland Press Herald. from the original on January 9, 2021. Retrieved November 26, 2022 – via Atowi.
  19. ^ Kamila, Avery Yale (November 8, 2020). "Vegan Kitchen: Americans have been enjoying nut milk and nut butter for at least 4 centuries". Portland Press Herald. from the original on November 8, 2020. Retrieved November 26, 2022.
  20. ^ Diemer-Eaton, Jessica (October 2014). . www.woodlandindianedu.com. Archived from the original on January 8, 2021.
  21. ^ Freedman, Robert Louis (1976). "Native North American Food Preparation Techniques". Boletín Bibliográfico de Antropología Americana (1973-1979). Pan American Institute of Geography and History. 38 (47): 142. JSTOR 43996285., s.v. Hickory Nut Soup (Cherokee)
  22. ^ Dragonwagon, Crescent (2007). The Cornbread Gospels. Workman Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7611-1916-6.
  23. ^ Hudson, Charles (1976). "A Conquered People". The Southeastern Indians. the University of Tennessee Press. pp. 498–499. ISBN 0-87049-248-9.
  24. ^ "Sofkey | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture". www.okhistory.org. from the original on April 29, 2021. Retrieved March 18, 2021.
  25. ^ "American Indian Health - Foods of Plains Tribes". from the original on November 9, 2018. Retrieved December 23, 2018.
  26. ^ The Dakota Diet: Health Secrets from the Great Plains.
  27. ^ Colby, Sarah E; et al. (2012). "Traditional Native American Foods". Journal of Ecological Anthropology. 15: 65–73. doi:10.5038/2162-4593.15.1.5.
  28. ^ a b c d e content Popper, V. S. (2016). Change and Persistence: Mission Neophyte Foodways at Selected Colonial Alta California Institutions. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 36(1), 5–25. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45155062
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  30. ^ "The History of Jerky: The incomplete but interesting history of jerky". The JerkyFAQ. April 10, 2012. from the original on September 17, 2015. Retrieved July 21, 2015.
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Bibliography edit

External links edit

  • Traditional Chiricahua recipes August 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  • American Indian Health and Diet Project

indigenous, cuisine, americas, includes, cuisines, food, practices, indigenous, peoples, americas, contemporary, native, peoples, retain, varied, culture, traditional, foods, along, with, addition, some, post, contact, foods, that, have, become, customary, eve. Indigenous cuisine of the Americas includes all cuisines and food practices of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas Contemporary Native peoples retain a varied culture of traditional foods along with the addition of some post contact foods that have become customary and even iconic of present day Indigenous American social gatherings for example frybread Foods like cornbread turkey cranberry blueberry hominy and mush have been adopted into the cuisine of the broader United States population from Native American cultures Wild rice is a native traditional food of Minnesota Wisconsin Michigan and some areas of North Dakota 1 In other cases documents from the early periods of Indigenous American contact with European African and Asian peoples have allowed the recovery and revitalization of Indigenous food practices that had formerly passed out of popularity The most important Indigenous American crops have generally included Indian corn or maize from the Taino name for the plant beans squash pumpkins sunflowers wild rice sweet potatoes tomatoes peppers peanuts avocados papayas potatoes and chocolate 1 Indigenous cuisine of the Americas uses domesticated and wild native ingredients 2 As the Americas cover a large range of biomes and there are more than 574 currently federally recognized Native American tribes in the US alone Indigenous cuisine can vary significantly by region and culture 3 failed verification 4 For example North American Native cuisine differs from Southwestern and Mexican cuisine in its simplicity and directness of flavor Contents 1 Indigenous cuisine of North America 1 1 Country food 1 2 Eastern Native American cuisine 1 3 Southeastern Native American cuisine 1 3 1 Selected dishes 1 4 Great Plains Native American cuisine 1 5 Western Indigenous cuisine 1 6 Southwestern Indigenous cuisine 1 7 Alaska Native cuisine 1 8 Dishes 1 9 Restaurants 2 Indigenous cuisine of the Circum Caribbean 3 Indigenous cuisine of Mesoamerica 3 1 Some known dishes 4 Indigenous cuisine of South America 4 1 Andean cultures 4 2 Other South American cultures 5 Cooking utensils 6 Crops and ingredients 6 1 Plant based foods 6 2 Fungi 6 3 Animals 7 Notable chefs restaurateurs and food writers 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External linksIndigenous cuisine of North America editFurther information Eastern Agricultural Complex Country food edit For the American sense of the term see Cuisine of the Southern United States See also Inuit cuisine Country food in Canada refers to the traditional diets of the Indigenous peoples in Canada known in Canada as First Nations Metis and Inuit especially in remote northern regions where Western food is an expensive import and traditional foods are still relied upon 5 6 7 The Government of the Northwest Territories estimated in 2015 that nearly half of Northwest Territories residents in smaller communities relied on country food for 75 of their meat and fish intake in larger communities the percentage was lower with the lowest percentage relying on country foods 4 being in Yellowknife the capital and only large community The most common country foods in the Northwest Territories area include mammals and birds caribou moose ducks geese seals hare grouse ptarmigan fish lake trout char inconnu whitefish pike burbot and berries blueberries cranberries blackberries cloudberries 8 In the eastern Canadian Arctic Inuit consume a diet of foods that are fished hunted and gathered locally This may include caribou walrus ringed seal bearded seal beluga whale polar bear berries and fireweed The cultural value attached to certain game species and certain parts varies For example in the James Bay region a 1982 study found that beluga whale meat was principally used as dog food whereas the blubber or muktuk was a valued delicacy 9 Value also varies by age with Inuit preferring younger ring seals and often using the older ones for dog food 10 Contaminants in country foods are a public health concern in Northern Canada volunteers are tested to track the spread of industrial chemicals from emitters usually in the South into the northern food web via the air and water 11 12 In 2017 the Government of the Northwest Territories committed to using country foods in the soon to open Stanton Territorial Hospital despite the challenges of obtaining inspecting and preparing sufficient quantities of wild game and plants 13 In Southern Canada wild foods especially meats are relatively rare in restaurants due to wildlife conservation rules against selling hunted meat as well as strict meat inspection rules There is a cultural divide between rural and remote communities that rely on wild foods and urban Canadians the majority who have little or no experience with them 14 nbsp A 19th century illustration Sugar Making Among the Indians in the North Aboriginal peoples living in the northeastern part of North America were the first people known to have produced maple syrup and maple sugarEastern Native American cuisine edit Further information Three Sisters agriculture nbsp Corn was a vital source of food for Indigenous communities across the Northern Hemisphere Sophisticated farming techniques were used to cultivate the crop throughout the American continent The essential staple foods of the Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands have traditionally been corn also known as maize beans and squash known as The Three Sisters because they were planted interdependently the beans grew up the tall stalks of the corn while the squash spread out at the base of the three plants and provided protection and support for the root systems Maple syrup is another essential food staple of the Eastern Woodlands peoples Tree sap is collected from sugar maple trees during the beginning of springtime when the nights are still cold 15 Birch bark containers are used in the process of making maple syrup maple cakes maple sugar and maple taffy When the sap is boiled to a certain temperature different variations of maple food products are created When the sap starts to thicken it can be poured into the snow to make taffy 16 Since the first colonists of New England had to adapt their foods to the local crops and resources the Native influences of Southern New England Algonquian cuisine form a significant part of New England cuisine with dishes such as cornbread succotash and Johnnycakes and ingredients such as corn cranberries and local species of clam still enjoyed in the region today 17 The Wabanaki tribal nations and other eastern woodlands peoples have made nut milk and infant formula made from nuts and cornmeal 18 19 20 while the Cherokee nation made Kanuchi soup from hickory nuts 21 Southeastern Native American cuisine edit Southeastern Native American culture has contributed to the formation of Southern cuisine from its origins through the present day From Southeastern Native American culture came one of the main staples of the Southern diet corn maize either ground into meal or limed with an alkaline salt to make hominy using a Native American technique known as nixtamalization 22 Corn is used to make all kinds of dishes such as the familiar cornbread and grits Though a less important staple potatoes were also adopted from Native American cuisine and have been used in many ways similar to corn Native Americans introduced the first non Native American Southerners to many other vegetables still familiar on southern tables Squash pumpkin many types of beans many types of peppers and sassafras all came to the settlers via Indigenous peoples The Virginia Algonquian word pawcohiccora means hickory nut meat or a nut milk drink made from it Many fruits are available in this region Muscadines blackberries raspberries and many other wild berries were part of Southern Native Americans diet To a far greater degree than anyone realizes several of the most important food dishes of the Southeastern Indians live on today in the soul food eaten by both black and white Southerners Hominy for example is still eaten Sofkee lives on as grits cornbread is used by Southern cooks Indian fritters variously known as hoe cake or Johnny cake Indians boiled cornbread is present in Southern cuisine as corn meal dumplings and as hush puppies Southerns cook their beans and field peas by boiling them as did the Indians like the Indians they cure their meat and smoke it over hickory coals Charles Hudson The Southeastern Indians 23 Southeastern Native Americans traditionally supplement their diets with meats derived from the hunting of native game Venison has always been an important meat staple due to the abundance of white tailed deer in the area Rabbits squirrels opossums and raccoons are also common Livestock adopted from Europeans in the form of hogs and cattle are also kept Aside from the more commonly consumed parts of the animal it is traditional to also eat organ meats such as liver brains and intestines Many of the early settlers were taught Southeastern Native American cooking methods Selected dishes edit Cornbread Hominy coarsely ground corn used to make grits Hush puppy small savory deep fried round ball made from cornmeal based batter Indian fritter Kanuchi soup made from ground hickory nuts Livermush pig liver parts of pig heads cornmeal and spices Sofkee corn soup or drink sour 24 Great Plains Native American cuisine edit Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies or Plains Indians have historically relied heavily on American bison American buffalo as a staple food source One traditional method of preparation is to cut the meat into thin slices then dry it either over a slow fire or in the hot sun until it is hard and brittle In this form it can last for months making it a main ingredient to be combined with other foods or eaten on its own One such use could be pemmican a concentrated mixture of fat and protein and fruits such as cranberries Saskatoon berries blueberries cherries chokecherries and currants are sometimes added Many parts of the bison were utilized and prepared in numerous ways including boiled meat tripe soup perhaps thickened with brains roasted intestines jerked smoked meat and raw kidneys liver tongue sprinkled with gall or bile were eaten immediately after a kill 25 The animals that Great Plains Indians consumed like bison deer and antelope were grazing animals Due to this they were high in omega 3 fatty acids an essential acid that many diets lack 26 When asked to state traditional staple foods a group of Plains elders identified prairie turnips Pediomelum esculentum syn Psoralea esculenta called timpsula or tin psila in the Lakota language group fruits chokecherries June berries plums blueberries cranberries strawberries buffalo berries gooseberries potatoes squash dried meats venison buffalo jack rabbit and prairie chicken and wild rice as being these staple foods 27 We landed at a Watlala village 200 men of Flatheads of 25 houses 50 canoes built of Straw we were treated verry kindly by them they gave us round root near the size of a hens egg roasted which they call Wap to wapato to eate which they roasted in the embers until they became Soft William Clark Lewis and Clark ExpeditionWapato Sagittaria latifolia has a number of varieties and is found growing in damp marsh area around ponds lakes rivers and streams The edible rhizomes were gathered and could be roasted in the embers of a fire or dried ground and the meal pressed into a cake which served well as bread as noted by Meriwether Lewis of the Lewis and Clark Expedition They are known today as broadleaf arrowhead arrowhead duckroot or duck potato Western Indigenous cuisine edit In the Pacific Northwest traditional diets include salmon and other fish seafood mushrooms berries roots and tubers and meats such as deer duck and rabbit In contrast to the Easterners the Northwestern peoples are traditionally hunter gatherers primarily The generally mild climate led to the development of an economy based on year round abundant food supplies rather than having to rely upon seasonal agriculture Yet Native American tribes of California still relied on storing food for winter seasons which included nuts seeds and dried meat and fish 28 Since animals migrated vegetation is seasonal and also weather needs to be taken into account In what is now California acorns can be ground into a flour that has at times served as the principal foodstuff for about 75 percent of the population 29 and dried meats can be prepared during the dry season 30 It seems that acorns and other nuts took priority among indigenous tribes because of the archaeological evidence of mortars and pestles 31 Grinding acorns requires a lot of resources and time to gather and process them Which implies an area where location is more permanent When it came to gathering acorns it took everyone in the tribe because within weeks they would become mature There was communal participation when it came to obtaining food Soups and bread were made from the grinding of acorns 28 California like other parts of the states and across the world goes through seasonal stages Indigenous tribes along the California region were able to use over 500 species of plants and animals for food 28 Before contact with indigenous tribes and colonizers there were vast resources for subsistence that were diverse among varying regions of California Archaeological methods suggest the use of flames and cutting materials altered bones from rodents 32 The presence of rodent bones in Quiroste archaeological sites suggests that the Quiroste people ate rodents The abundance of rodents may have made them a convenient food source Deer and seal bones are also found in indigenous communities 32 This means that the diet is varied as seals are found near the coast and deer are found further inland Indigenous tribes that were closer to inland would consume land based animals and those closer to the coast would consume more marine based animals Other evidence is through the use of screening that found anchovies to be a source of food for indigenous people 32 This is a valuable discovery because anchovies are difficult to come by due to their fragile bones Indigenous cuisine is not limited to salmon as a primary source of protein Indigenous tribes were consuming the meat of shellfish with the implication of bi pitted cobbles 31 As cuisine differs between regions so do the tools used for obtaining those proteins In this case the meat of shellfish required stone tools to crack open the shells Which can lead to eating more shellfish based cuisines The consumption of marrow from animal bones is evident from archaeological analyses of hand axes made from andesitic and quartzitic cobbles 31 Obtaining bone marrow from an animal requires both time and resources as it is located in the center of the bone and requires extra effort to extract When food requires extra effort to obtain it is given more value The destruction of Native California was done by the missionaries taking over the indigenous land and clearing the environment for their own cultural foodways 33 This caused some indigenous tribes to become dependent on missionaries for survival Archaeological evidence shows that some indigenous tribes were eating cattle because of the reliance they had on missionaries 34 Although some tribes relied on the food from missionaries they still hunted for their own food from the evidence of birds found that know to migrate to the area seasonally 34 Although they were fed by missionaries they required more food That s when their own ways of foodways came into play for hunting and preparing the food they captured As previously mentioned there was a large variety of food available in California However native tribes living along the confines of missionaries were only able to gather wheat maize barley and peach 28 That s if the surrounding areas were equipped to grow them Food not only played an important role in subsistence but also an important role in ceremonies especially to mourn someone s death 34 Foods not only play an important role in survival but maintain cultural costumes and traditions going for personal and generational knowledge The preparation for making atole was done by toasting the wheat before it was granulated 28 While indigenous food may appear to be a thing of the past there are still indigenous people who are keeping their traditions alive through modern cuisine Crystal Wahpepah sees her kitchen as a way to promote indigenous food sovereignty and the reclamation of ancestral knowledge 35 Southwestern Indigenous cuisine edit Ancestral Puebloans of the present day Four Corners region of the United States comprising Arizona Colorado New Mexico and Utah initially practiced subsistence agriculture by cultivating maize beans squash sunflower seeds and pine nuts from the pinyon pine and game meat including venison and cuniculture and freshwater fish such as Rio Grande cutthroat trout and rainbow trout are also traditional foods in the region citation needed Ancestral Puebloans are also known for their basketry and pottery indicating both an agricultural surplus that needed to be carried and stored and clay pot cooking Grinding stones have been used to grind maize into meal for cooking Archaeological digs indicate a very early domestication of turkeys for food citation needed New Mexican cuisine is heavily rooted in both Pueblo and Hispano food traditions and is a prevalent cuisine in the American Southwest especially in New Mexico citation needed The 2002 Foods of the Southwest Indian Nations won a James Beard Award the first Native American cookbook so honored 36 37 Publishers had told the author Lois Ellen Frank that there was no such thing as Native American cuisine 38 Alaska Native cuisine edit Alaska Native cuisine consists of nutrient dense foods such as seal fish salmon and moose Along with these berries huckleberries and bird eggs are traditionally consumed by Alaska Natives 39 Seal walruses and polar bears are the large game that Alaska Natives hunt Smaller game includes whitefish Arctic char Arctic hare and ptarmigan Due to weather edible plants like berries are only available to be consumed in the summer so people have a diet very high in fat and protein but low in carbohydrates The game that is hunted is also used for clothing The intestines of large mammals are used to make waterproof clothing and caribou fur is used to make warm clothing 40 Dishes edit nbsp Cornbread nbsp Succotash nbsp Drying salmon filetsAcorn bread Acorn crepe 41 Acorn mush from the Miwok people 42 Akutaq also called Eskimo ice cream made from caribou or moose tallow and meat berries seal oil and sometimes fish whipped together with snow or water Bannock a bread of European origin cooked over an open fire Bean bread made with corn meal and beans popular among the Cherokee 43 Bird brain stew from the Cree nation 44 Black drink or asi a Southeastern ceremonial drink made from the yaupon holly Buffalo stew from the Lakota and Cherokee people also called tanka me a lo 45 Chinook olives a type of cured acorn eaten by the aboriginal people of the Columbia River Valley Cornbread and corn pone the word pone derives from the word for bread in some Eastern Algonquian languages such as Powhatan apon 46 and Lenape ahpon 47 Dried meats like jerky and smoked salmon strips File powder made from sassafras leaves used by the Choctaw for flavoring and thickening soups and stews as well as for herbal medicine Frybread a dish made from ingredients distributed to Native Americans living on reservations Green chili stew Hopi tea an herbal tea made from Thelesperma megapotamicum Mutton stew from the Navajo people Nokake Algonquian hoecakes made of cornmeal Nut milk from the Wabanaki 18 Pemmican a concentrated food consisting of dried pulverized meat dried berries and rendered fat 48 49 50 nbsp Pemmican BallPiki bread from the Hopi people Psindamoakan a Lenape hunter s food made of parched cornmeal mixed with maple sugar Pueblo bread 51 Salted salmon an Inuit dish of brined salmon in a heavy concentration of salt water left for months to soak up salts Sapan pronounced ˈsaːpːʌn 52 cornmeal mush a staple of Lenape cuisine Stink fish an Inuit dish of dried fish kept underground until ripe for later consumption also done with fish heads Succotash a dish of beans and corn Sumac lemonade 53 a Native American beverage made from sumac berries Tiswin a term used for several fermented beverages in the Southwest including a corn or fruit beer of the Apache and a saguaro fruit beer of the Tohono O odham Walrus flipper soup an Inuit dish made from walrus flippers Wojapi a Plains Indian pudding of mashed cooked berriesRestaurants edit nbsp Indian Pueblo Kitchen Albuquerque NM nbsp Tocabe Denver CO nbsp Mitsitam Native Foods Cafe Washington D C nbsp Owamni Minneapolis MN nbsp Thirty Nine Restaurant Oklahoma City OK nbsp Cafe Ohlone Berkeley CA nbsp Cafe Gozhoo Whiteriver Navajo County AZ Indigenous cuisine of the Circum Caribbean edit nbsp Jerk chicken with plaintains rice and honey biscuitThis region comprises the cultures of the Arawaks the Caribs and the Ciboney The Taino of the Greater Antilles were the first New World people to encounter Columbus Prior to European contact these groups foraged hunted and fished The Taino cultivated cassava sweet potato maize beans squash pineapple peanut and peppers Today these cultural groups have mostly assimilated into the surrounding population but their culinary legacy lives on Ajiaco same as pepperpot a soup believed to have originated in Cuba before Columbus arrival The soup mixes a variety of meats tubers and peppers Barbacoa the origin of the English word barbecue a method of slow grilling meat over a fire pit Jerk a style of cooking meat that originated with the Taino of Jamaica Meat was applied with a dry rub of allspice Scotch bonnet pepper and perhaps additional spices before being smoked over fire or wood charcoal Casabe a crispy thin flatbread made from cassava root widespread in the Pre Columbian Caribbean and Amazonia Bammy a Jamaican bread made from cassava and water today this bread is fried and made with coconut milk Guanime a Puerto Rican food similar to the tamale made with cornmeal or cornmeal and mashed cassave together Pasteles a dish that may have also been called hallaca and originated from Puerto Rico Pasteles were once made with cassava and taro mashed into a masa onto a taro leaf They are then stuffed with meat and wrapped Funche or fungi a cornmeal mush Cassareep a sauce condiment or thickening agent made by boiling down the extracted juices of bitter cassava root Mama Juana a tea made in Hispaniola Dominican Republic and Haiti Pepperpot a spicy stew of Taino origin based on meat vegetables chili peppers and boiled down cassava juice with a legacy stretching from Cuba Colombia coast and to Guyana Bush teas popular as herbal remedies in the Virgin Islands and other parts of the Caribbean often derived from indigenous sources such as ginger thomas soursop inflammation bush kenip wormgrass worry wine and many other leaves barks and herbs Ouicou a fermented cassava based beer brewed by the Caribs of the Lesser Antilles citation needed Taumali or taumalin a Carib sauce made from the green liver meat of lobsters chile pepper and lime juice Indigenous cuisine of Mesoamerica edit nbsp Tamales nbsp PupusasMain articles Aztec cuisine and Maya cuisine The pre conquest cuisine of the Indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica made a major contribution to shaping modern day Mexican cuisine Belizean cuisine Salvadoran cuisine Honduran cuisine Guatemalan cuisine The cultures involved included the Aztec Maya Olmec Pipil and many more see the List of pre Columbian civilizations Some known dishes edit Alegria a candy made from puffed amaranth and boiled down honey or maguey sap in ancient times formed into the shapes of Aztec gods Balche Mayan fermented honey drink Champurrado a chocolate drink 54 Chili Corn tortillas Guacamole Huarache Mezcal Mole Pejelagarto a fish with an alligator like head seasoned with amashito chile and lime 55 better source needed Pozole Pulque or octli an alcoholic beverage of fermented maguey juice Pupusas thick cornmeal flatbread from the Pipil culture of El Salvador Salsa Tacos Tamales Tepache pineapple beer Tlacoyos gordita XocolatlIndigenous cuisine of South America edit nbsp Roast guinea pig cuy nbsp Ceviche nbsp Cheese filled arepa nbsp Chipa cheese breadAndean cultures edit Main articles Inca cuisine and Muisca cuisine This currently includes recipes known from the Quechua Aymara and Nazca of the Andes Grilled guinea pig a native to most of the Andes region this small rodent has been cultivated for at least 4000 years Fried green tomatoes a nightshade relative native to Peru Saraiaka a corn liquor Chicha a generic name for any number of Indigenous beers found in South America Though chichas made from various types of corn are the most common in the Andes chicha in the Amazon Basin frequently use manioc Variations found throughout the continent can be based on amaranth quinoa peanut potato coca and many other ingredients Chicha morada a Peruvian sweet unfermented drink made from purple corn fruits and spices Colada morada a thickened spiced fruit drink based on the Andean blackberry traditional to the Day of the Dead ceremonies held in Ecuador it is typically served with guagua de pan a bread shaped like a swaddled infant formerly made from cornmeal in Pre Columbian times though other shapes can be found in various regions Quinoa porridge Ch arki a type of dried meat Humitas similar to modern day tamales a thick mixture of corn herbs and onion cooked in a corn leaf wrapping The name is modern meaning bow tie because of the shape in which it s wrapped Locro from the Quechua ruqru is a hearty thick stew popular along the Andes mountain range It is one of the national dishes of Argentina and Bolivia Mazamorra morada a thick sweet pudding made from ground purple corn and fruit Sold in mix form in Peru 56 Mate de coca a Peruvian tea made from steeped coca leaves It is commonly sipped by Indigenous people living at high altitudes in the Andes to prevent elevation illnesses Pachamanca stew cooked in a hautia oven Papa a la Huancaina Peruvian potatoes covered in a spicy peanut based sauce called Huancaina Wan ka EE na sauce Patasca spicy stew made from boiled maize potatoes and dried meat 57 Ceviche raw fish marinated in lime juice One of Peru s national dishes Cancha or tostada fried golden hominy Llajwa salsa of Bolivia Llapingachos mashed potato cakes from Ecuador Tocosh togosh a traditional Quechua food prepared from fermented potato pulp Other South American cultures edit Angu an Indigenous Brazilian type of corn mush Arepa a maize based bread originating from the Indigenous peoples of Colombia and Venezuela Vori vori a Paraguayan soup with cornmeal dumplings Cauim a fermented beverage based on maize or manioc broken down by the enzymes of human saliva traditional to the Tupinamba and other indigenous peoples of Brazil Chipa a wide variety of corn flour or manioc based breads traditional to Paraguay Curanto a Chilean stew cooked in an earthen oven originally from the Chono people of Chiloe Island Kaguyjy a Guarani derived locro corn mush that become part of the national Paraguayan cuisine Kiveve a sweet or savory dish from Paraguay consisting of pureed pumpkin and other ingredients cooked over a fire Lampreado or payagua mascada a starchy manioc based fried cake from Paraguay and the northeast of Argentina Lapacho or taheebo a medicinal tree bark infusion Manicoba dish of boiled manioc leaves and smoked meat indigenous to the Brazilian Amazon Mate beverage Mbeju a pan cooked cake utilizing manioc starch Merken an aji powder from the Mapuche of Patagonia Mocoto a Brazilian stew with cow s feet beans and vegetables Moqueca a Brazilian seafood stew Pacoca from the Tupi to crumble describes two different dishes of pulverized ingredients one with peanuts and sugar and the other with dried meat ground manioc and onion Pamonha a Brazilian tamale Pira caldo Paraguayan fish soup Sopa paraguaya a corn flour casserole esteemed as the national dish of Paraguay related to chipa guasu Soyo shortened from the Guarani name so o josopy a Paraguayan soup based on meat crushed in a mortar Tacaca a Brazilian stew of tucupi jambu leaves and shrimp typically served in a dried gourd Terere or ka ay a cold brewed version of yerba mate Tucupi manioc based broth used in Brazilian dishes such as pato no tucupi and tacaca Yerba mate a tea made from the holly of the same name derived from Guarani Cooking utensils edit nbsp Metate and manoThe earliest utensils including bowls knives spoons grinders and griddles were made from all kinds of materials such as rock and animal bone Gourds were also initially cultivated hollowed and dried to be used as bowls spoons ladles and storage containers Many Indigenous cultures also developed elaborate ceramics for making bowls and cooking pots and basketry for making containers Nobility in the Andean and Mesoamerican civilizations were even known to have utensils and vessels smelted from gold silver copper or other minerals Batan an Andean grinding slab used in conjunction with a small stone una Buren a clay griddle used by the Taino Comal a griddle used since Pre Columbian times in Mexico and Central America for a variety of purposes especially to cook tortillas Cuia a gourd used for drinking mate in South America Metate a stone grinding slab used with a stone mano or metlapil to process meal in Mesoamerica and one of the most notable Pre Columbian artifacts in Costa Rica Molinillo a device used by Mesoamerican royalty for frothing cacao drinks Molcajete a basalt stone bowl used with a tejolote to grind ingredients as a Mesoamerican form of mortar and pestle Paila an Andean earthenware bowl Cooking baskets were woven from a variety of local fibers and sometimes coated with clay to improve durability The notable thing about basket cooking and some native clay pot cooking is that the heat source i e hot stones or charcoal is used inside the utensil rather than outside Also see Cookware and bakeware Crops and ingredients edit nbsp A russet potato with sprouts nbsp The bean pods of the mesquite above can be dried and ground into flour adding a sweet nutty taste to breads nbsp A maple syrup tap nbsp Several large pumpkins nbsp Acorns of sessile oak The acorn or oak nut is the nut of the oaks and their close relatives genera Quercus and Lithocarpus in the family Fagaceae Plant based foods edit Acorn used to make flour and fertilizers for plants Achira edible tubercule Achiote annatto seed seasoning Acuyo seasoning Agarita berries Agave nectar sweetener Allspice seasoning Amaranth grain American chestnut Araza American lotus seeds and root leaves for baking coverings Amole can include Chlorogalum and Agave schottii Aspen inner bark and sap used as sweetener Avocado Barbados cherry or acerola Beans Bear grass Beautyberry Beech nuts Birch bark Birch syrup sweetener Bitterroot Blackberries Blow wife seeds Blueberries Bodark seeds also called Osage orange hedge apple monkeybrain citation needed Bog rosemary poisonous but leaves can be brewed into tea Box elder inner bark used as sweetener Buckeye nuts can be eaten after they are removed and roasted to remove tannins Butia palm fruits from South America Buffalo gourd wild ancestor of all squash pumpkin citation needed Bur cucumber Cacao Cactus various species fruits and young pads see nopales California poppy seeds There are eastern American poppies also but they are believed to have always been so rare inclusion in the human diet is highly unlikely Camas root Canella winterana white cinnamon used as a seasoning before cinnamon was imported to the Americas Cashew nuts Cassava South America Cattails roots pollen Century plant mescal or agave crowns tuberous base portion and shoots Chia seed Chicle chewing gum Chili peppers including bell peppers seasoning Cherimoya Chokecherries Cholla fruits Coca Andes Cow parsnip root Cranberries Crowberry Culantro used as a seasoning before cilantro Currants Custard apple Dandelion Datil fruit and flowers Devil s claw Dewberry Dropseed grasses various varieties seeds Dwarf plantain Eastern redbud flowers as spice fruit Eastern red columbine nectar only Elderberries Emory oak acorns Epazote seasoning Feijoa fruit from South America Ferns various edible species such as Fiddlehead fern Gaylussacias or black huckleberry grows near wild blueberries tastes similar but unrelated Goji or wolfberry Goldenberry Gooseberries Groundcherry multiple species from North and South America Guarana Guava Guaviyu Hackberries Hawthorn fruit Hazelnut also called filbert Hierba Luisa Hueinacaztli or ear flower Hickory nuts Hogpeanut Holly Hops Horsemint Chenopodium berlandieri Huazontle pitseed goosefoot Huckleberries Indian cucumber Indian potato or hopniss openowag cinnamon vine groundnut cultivated in Japan as hodoimo edible root bulbs and beans dried flowers as spice Jack in the pulpit root Jambu Jerusalem artichoke Jicama Juniper berries Kaniwa Kentucky coffeetree Kiwicha Lamb s quarters leaves and seeds Lapacho Lechehuana honey Lemon verbena lemon tasting herb Lilypad root Locust blossoms and pods Lucuma Maca Maize throughout the Americas probably domesticated in or near Mexico includes blue corn Mamey Manzanita Maple syrup and sugar used as a sweetener and seasoning in the Eastern Woodlands Mesquite bean pods flour meal Mexican oregano Milkweed Mint various species American mint is best known in eastern woodlands region Mooseberry called highbush cranberry in Eastern US actually a type of Viburnum Mulberries Nopales cactus Okra Onions Oregon grape Palmetto Surinam cherry Papaya Passionfruit Pawpaw Peanuts originated in Peru Pecans Pennyroyal American false variety Persimmon Pigweed seeds Pine including western white pine and Pinus ponderosa inner bark used as sweetener sap as chewing gum ingredient tips for jelly cuttings for tea and pinenuts Pineapples South America Pinyon nuts Pinonero nuts Pipsissewa Plum Popcorn flower herb Potatoes South America Prickly pears Prairie turnips Pumpkins Purslane leaves Quinoa South America Central America and Eastern North America Ramps wild onion Raspberries rock cress Rose pepper Sage Saguaro cactus fruits and seeds Salt Sangre de drago Sapote Sassafras tea seasoning also calledgumbo file Screwbean fruit Sedge tubers Sea grape or uva de playa Serviceberry also juneberry saskatoon Shepherd s purse leaves Solomon s seal Sotol crowns Soursop or guanabana Spanish bayonet fruit Spanish lime or mamoncillo Common spicebush seasoning Spikenard berries and roots for tea some tribes ate roots this is a select species of which there are many in the Americas and not all species are edible though Natives had wide medicinal and practical uses Squash throughout the Americas Stevia sweetener Strawberries Sumac berries Sunflower seeds Sweet anise Sweet potato South America misleading name not a potato Sweetsop or sugar apple Tamarillo Teaberry or wintergreen Tobacco Tomatillo Tomato Texas persimmons or sugar plum Tuckahoe Tulip poplar syrup made from bark Tule rhizomes Banana passionfruit Tumbo or taxo Vanilla seasoning Vetch pods Wapato root White evening primrose fruit White walnuts or butternuts Wild carrot also harbinger of spring salt and pepper Wild celery Wild cherries Wild grapes fruit Wild honey Wild onion Wild pea pods Wild roses Wild sweet potato misleading name not a potato Wood sorrel leaves Yacon nectar Yaupon holly leaves Yerba buena Yerba mate Yucca blossoms fruit and stalks Zamia nuts Fungi edit black trumpet chicken of the woods chanterelles hen of the woods Lichen certain species morels oyster mushrooms puffballAnimals edit nbsp Bison cow and calf nbsp MooseArmadillo Badger Bear Beaver Bighorn sheep Bison originally found throughout most of the North American plains Capybara Chipmunk Deer Dove Duck Elk Ants Geese Groundhog Grouse Guanaco hunted in South America by hunter gatherer societies for ex in Patagonia until the 19th century Guinea pig domesticated in the Andes Hog important European import Honey wasp Brachygastra mellifica Brachygastra lecheguana and Polybia occidentalis a source of honey found from the Southwestern United States to Argentina Horse although imported by Europeans the horse was still very important to Indigenous cultures throughout the Americas famously on the North American Plains in the historic era Hutia Iguana Llama domesticated in the Andes Locust cicada Manatee Moose Mourning dove Muscovy duck domesticated in Mesoamerica citation needed Opossum Otter Passenger pigeon extinct Peccaries Pheasant Porcupine Prairie dog Pronghorn antelope Quail Rabbit Raccoon Sheep important European import in Oasisamerica Skunk Sloth Stingless bee Melipona beecheii and M yucatanica Maya source of honey Squirrel Turkey Turtle Yacare caiman Wood ratNotable chefs restaurateurs and food writers editLois Ellen Frank Sean Sherman Vincent Medina a member of the Muwekma Ohlone 58 59 60 Dana Thompson Louis Trevino a member of the Rumsen Ohlone 60 See also edit nbsp Food portal nbsp Drink portal nbsp Indigenous peoples of the Americas portalPlants used in Native American cuisine House dish Hunter gatherer Locavores Tlingit cuisine Wild onion festival Inuit diet List of First Nations peoples Aboriginal food security in Canada Peasant food Staple food Soul food Bushmeat Africa Bushfood Australia Game food References edit a b Native American Food Agriculture Hunting and Gathering Fishing and other American Indian food sources Archived from the original on December 18 2018 Retrieved December 18 2018 Welcome to NativeTech Indigenous Food and Traditional Recipes NativeTech Native American Technology amp Art Archived from the original on February 19 2009 Retrieved August 23 2008 The Native American Culinary Association Forum Index The Native American Culinary Association Archived from the original on April 22 2007 Severson Kim November 23 2005 Native Foods Nourish Again The New York Times Retrieved January 21 2015 Usher Peter J 1976 Evaluating Country Food in the Northern Native Economy PDF Arctic Arctic Institute of North America 29 2 105 120 doi 10 14430 arctic2795 JSTOR 40509261 Archived PDF from the original on June 30 2020 Retrieved November 25 2022 Wein Eleanor E et al 1990 Food Consumption Patterns and Use of Country Foods by Native Canadians near Wood Buffalo National Park Canada Arctic 44 3 196 206 doi 10 14430 arctic1539 http www enr gov nt ca sites enr files weights of wildlife pdf Archived December 31 2019 at the Wayback Machine in deriving estimates of the economic value of wildlife used as food known in northern Canada as country food or traditional food page 2 18 4 Trends in country food use in NWT regions NWT State of the Environment Report Report Government of Northwest Territories 2022 Retrieved November 25 2022 http www enr gov nt ca sites enr files weights of wildlife pdf Archived December 31 2019 at the Wayback Machine page 16 Ashley pg 22 Williams Ollie January 25 2016 Country food contaminants NWT residents undergo tests 100 1 True North FM Archived from the original on August 23 2018 Retrieved November 25 2022 Brandow Danielle October 22 2018 Country Food Consumption Notices Assessing Awareness and Preferences of Health and Risk Communication Messages in the Sahtu Region of the Northwest Territories Archived from the original on May 2 2023 Retrieved May 2 2023 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Brockman Alex September 21 2017 Traditional Indigenous food in a hospital That s the plan for new N W T Facility CBC News Archived from the original on March 28 2019 Retrieved November 25 2022 Kill What You Eat April 10 2017 Archived from the original on March 20 2019 Retrieved February 20 2019 Maple Sugarbush Questions and Answers PDF University of Minnesota Duluth Archived PDF from the original on August 19 2019 Retrieved December 15 2018 Nerburn Kent Project Director 1991 We Choose To Remember More Memories of the Red Lake Ojibwe People Bemidji Minnesota Arrow Printing p 8 Freedman P 2019 American Cuisine And How It Got This Way pp 1 40 New York NY Liveright Publishing ISBN 978 1631494628 a b Kamila Avery Yale November 8 2020 Wabanaki Enjoying Nut Milk and Butter for Centuries Portland Press Herald Archived from the original on January 9 2021 Retrieved November 26 2022 via Atowi Kamila Avery Yale November 8 2020 Vegan Kitchen Americans have been enjoying nut milk and nut butter for at least 4 centuries Portland Press Herald Archived from the original on November 8 2020 Retrieved November 26 2022 Diemer Eaton Jessica October 2014 Food Nuts of the Eastern Woodlands Native Peoples www woodlandindianedu com Archived from the original on January 8 2021 Freedman Robert Louis 1976 Native North American Food Preparation Techniques Boletin Bibliografico de Antropologia Americana 1973 1979 Pan American Institute of Geography and History 38 47 142 JSTOR 43996285 s v Hickory Nut Soup Cherokee Dragonwagon Crescent 2007 The Cornbread Gospels Workman Publishing ISBN 978 0 7611 1916 6 Hudson Charles 1976 A Conquered People The Southeastern Indians the University of Tennessee Press pp 498 499 ISBN 0 87049 248 9 Sofkey The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture www okhistory org Archived from the original on April 29 2021 Retrieved March 18 2021 American Indian Health Foods of Plains Tribes Archived from the original on November 9 2018 Retrieved December 23 2018 The Dakota Diet Health Secrets from the Great Plains Colby Sarah E et al 2012 Traditional Native American Foods Journal of Ecological Anthropology 15 65 73 doi 10 5038 2162 4593 15 1 5 a b c d e content Popper V S 2016 Change and Persistence Mission Neophyte Foodways at Selected Colonial Alta California Institutions Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 36 1 5 25 http www jstor org stable 45155062 Redhawk 2004 Cooking With Acorns North American Indian Recipes the People s Paths home page Archived from the original on November 19 2018 Retrieved August 23 2008 The History of Jerky The incomplete but interesting history of jerky The JerkyFAQ April 10 2012 Archived from the original on September 17 2015 Retrieved July 21 2015 a b c content Hylkema Mark G amp Cuthrell Rob Q 2013 An Archaeological and Historical View of Quiroste Tribal Genesis California Archaeology 5 2 225 245 DOI 10 1179 1947461X13Z 00000000013 a b c content Gifford Gonzalez Diane Boone Cristie M amp Reid Rachel E 2013 The Fauna from Quiroste Insights into Indigenous Foodways Culture and Land Modification California Archaeology 5 2 291 317 DOI 10 1179 1947461X13Z 00000000016 content Zappia N 2018 Indigenous Food Frontiers in the Early American West Southern California Quarterly 100 4 385 408 https www jstor org stable 26768240 Archived May 18 2023 at the Wayback Machine a b c content James M Potter Tiffany Clark amp Seetha Reddy 2021 Subsistence and Ritual Faunal and Plant Exploitation at the Mission Santa Clara de Asis Rancheria CA SCL 30H California Archaeology 13 2 203 225 DOI 10 1080 1947461X 2021 1997507 Wahpepah s Kitchen n d About Us https wahpepahskitchen com about us Archived May 18 2023 at the Wayback Machine Swanson Stevenson 2003 Star grazing chicagotribune com Archived from the original on May 23 2020 Retrieved November 14 2019 Biggers Ashley M September 5 2018 The first truly American cuisine is having a revival CNN Archived from the original on November 25 2019 Retrieved November 14 2019 Frederich Lori November 20 2013 Chef Lois Ellen Frank demystifies ew Native American cuisine OnMilwaukee com Archived from the original on June 7 2019 Retrieved November 14 2019 Traditional Foods in Native America A compendium of traditional foods stories from American Indian and Alaska Native communities PDF Archived PDF from the original on December 11 2017 Retrieved November 29 2018 Inuit Archived from the original on December 5 2018 Retrieved December 5 2018 Mindess A 2022 November 2 The California Chefs Showcasing the Diversity of Native American Cuisine Atlas Obscura https www atlasobscura com articles native american restaurants in california Archived May 18 2023 at the Wayback Machine Acorn Mush NativeTech Native American Technology amp Art Archived from the original on September 13 2018 Retrieved September 29 2005 Cherokee Bean Bread Recipe www pbs org Archived from the original on May 9 2021 Retrieved March 19 2021 Bird brain stew NativeTech Native American Technology amp Art Archived from the original on November 19 2018 Retrieved September 29 2005 Buffalo Stew Tanka me a lo NativeTech Native American Technology amp Art Archived from the original on December 4 2018 Retrieved September 29 2005 Rudes Blair A December 15 2011 Coastal Algonquian Language Sampler Coastal Carolina Indian Center Archived from the original on November 29 2014 Retrieved November 20 2014 ahpon Lenape Talking Dictionary Delaware Tribe of Indians Archived from the original on September 24 2015 Retrieved November 20 2014 How Long Does Pemmican Last May 27 2017 Archived from the original on November 30 2018 Retrieved December 5 2018 How To Make Pemmican A Survival Superfood That Can Last 50 Years Off The Grid News Off The Grid News June 2 2015 Archived from the original on November 30 2018 Retrieved November 29 2018 pemmican Definition History amp Facts Encyclopedia Britannica Archived from the original on November 30 2018 Retrieved November 29 2018 In New Mexico Bakers Keep the Tradition of Pueblo Bread Alive Atlas Obscura Archived from the original on April 23 2021 Retrieved March 19 2021 sapan Lenape Talking Dictionary Archived from the original on October 4 2011 Retrieved June 26 2011 Sumac Lemonade Recipe PBS Food Archived from the original on April 30 2021 Retrieved March 19 2021 Aguilar Valerie 2014 Chocolate Ancient Drink of the Gods Hispanic Culture Site BellaOnline Archived from the original on November 19 2018 Retrieved September 29 2005 Brandon Courtney Jonelle Amanda Mayan Cuisine Putnam County High School Archived from the original on April 17 2009 How to Make Delicious Peruvian Purple Corn Pudding The Spruce Eats Archived from the original on March 7 2021 Retrieved March 20 2021 Patasca Pork Sheep or Beef Head Stew Bolivian Food and Recipes BoliviaBella Archived from the original on May 13 2021 Retrieved March 20 2021 Soleil Ho March 28 2019 The Bay Area s most intriguing new pop up highlights precolonial California cuisine San Francisco Chronicle Retrieved January 12 2020 Emily Wilson February 26 2019 How California s Indigenous Cafes Repair Colonial Damage Eater Vox Media Retrieved January 12 2020 a b Brown Patricia Leigh December 11 2022 Indigenous Founders of a Museum Cafe Put Repatriation on the Menu New York Times Retrieved August 13 2023 Bibliography editCoe Sophie D 1994 America s First Cuisines Austin Texas University of Texas Press ISBN 978 0 292 71159 4 Hetzler Richard 2010 The Mitsitam Cafe cookbook recipes from the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian Washington D C Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian ISBN 978 1 55591 747 0 Niethammer Carolyn 1974 American Indian Food and Lore New York A Simon amp Schuster Macmillan Company ISBN 0 02 010000 0 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Foods and ingredients of the indigenous people nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cuisine of indigenous peoples in North America Traditional Chiricahua recipes Archived August 16 2011 at the Wayback Machine American Indian Health and Diet Project Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Indigenous cuisine of the 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