Maasai people

The Maasai (/ˈmɑːsaɪ, mɑːˈsaɪ/;^[3][4] Swahili: Wamasai) are a Nilotic ethnic group inhabiting northern, central and southern Kenya and northern Tanzania, near the African Great Lakes region.^[5] The Maasai speak the Maa language (ɔl Maa),^[5] a member of the Nilotic language family that is related to the Dinka, Kalenjin and Nuer languages. Except for some elders living in rural areas, most Maasai people speak the official languages of Kenya and Tanzania, being Swahili and English.^[6]

Maasai

A gathering of Maasais in 2005
Total population
c. 2 million
Regions with significant populations
Kenya	1,189,522 (2019)^[1]
Tanzania	800,000 [approximate] (2011)^[2]
Languages
Maa (ɔl Maa)
Religion
Christianity, Maasai mythology, Islam
Related ethnic groups
Samburu, Ilchamus people and other Nilotic peoples

The Maasai population has been reported as numbering 1,189,522 in Kenya in the 2019 census,^[1] compared to 377,089 in the 1989 census, though many Maasai view the census as government meddling and therefore either refuse to participate or actively provide false information.^[7][8][9]

History

The Maasai inhabit the African Great Lakes region and arrived via South Sudan.^[10] Most Nilotic speakers in the area, including the Maasai, the Turkana and the Kalenjin, are pastoralists and have a reputation as fearsome warriors and cattle rustlers.^[10] The Maasai and other groups in East Africa have adopted customs and practices from neighbouring Cushitic-speaking groups, including the age-set system of social organisation, circumcision, and vocabulary terms.^{[11][12][full citation needed]}

Origin, migration and assimilation

 

Maasai man

Many ethnic groups that had already formed settlements in the region were forcibly displaced^[when?] by the incoming Maasai.^[13] Other, mainly Southern Cushitic groups, were assimilated into Maasai society. The Nilotic ancestors of the Kalenjin likewise absorbed some early Cushitic populations.^[14]

Settlement in East Africa

The Maasai territory reached its largest size in the mid-19th century and covered almost all of the Great Rift Valley and adjacent lands from Mount Marsabit in the north to Dodoma in the south.^[15] At this time the Maasai, as well as the larger Nilotic group they were part of, raised cattle as far east as the Tanga coast in Tanganyika (now mainland Tanzania). Raiders used spears and shields but were most feared for throwing clubs (orinka) which could be accurately thrown from up to 70 paces (approx. 100 metres). In 1852, there was a report of a concentration of 800 Maasai warriors on the move in what is now Kenya. In 1857, after having depopulated the "Wakuafi wilderness" in what is now southeastern Kenya, Maasai warriors threatened Mombasa on the Kenyan coast.^[16]

 

Maasai warriors in German East Africa, c. 1906–1918

Because of this migration, the Maasai are the southernmost Nilotic speakers. The period of expansion was followed by the Maasai "Emutai" of 1883–1902. This period was marked by epidemics of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, rinderpest (see 1890s African rinderpest epizootic), and smallpox. The estimate first put forward by a German lieutenant in what was then northwest Tanganyika, was that 90% of cattle and half of wild animals perished from rinderpest. German doctors in the same area claimed that "every second" African had a pock-marked face as the result of smallpox. This period coincided with drought. Rains failed in 1897 and 1898.^[17]

The Austrian explorer Oscar Baumann travelled in Maasai lands between 1891 and 1893 and described the old Maasai settlement in the Ngorongoro Crater in the 1894 book Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle ("Through the lands of the Maasai to the source of the Nile"). By one estimate two-thirds of the Maasai died during this period.^[18][19][20] Maasai in Tanganyika (now mainland Tanzania) were displaced from the fertile lands between Mount Meru and Mount Kilimanjaro, and most of the fertile highlands near Ngorongoro in the 1940s.^[21] More land was taken to create wildlife reserves and national parks: Amboseli National Park, Nairobi National Park, Maasai Mara, Samburu National Reserve, Lake Nakuru National Park and Tsavo in Kenya; and Lake Manyara, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tarangire^[22] and Serengeti National Park in what is now Tanzania.

Maasai are pastoralists and have resisted the urging of the Tanzanian and Kenyan governments to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. They have demanded grazing rights to many of the national parks in both countries.^[23]

The Maasai people stood against slavery and never condoned the traffic of human beings, and outsiders looking for people to enslave avoided the Maasai.^[24]

Essentially there are twenty-two geographic sectors or sub-tribes of the Maasai community, each one having its customs, appearance, leadership and dialects. These subdivisions are known as 'nations' or 'iloshon' in the Maa language: the Keekonyokie, Ildamat, Purko, Wuasinkishu, Siria, Laitayiok, Loitai, Ilkisonko, Matapato, Dalalekutuk, Ilooldokilani, Ilkaputiei, Moitanik, Ilkirasha, Samburu, Ilchamus, Laikipiak, Loitokitoki, Larusa, Salei, Sirinket and Parakuyo.^[25]

Genetics

Recent advances in genetic analyses have helped shed some light on the ethnogenesis of the Maasai people. Genetic genealogy, a tool that uses the genes of modern populations to trace their ethnic and geographic origins, has also helped clarify the possible background of the modern Maasai.^[26]

Autosomal DNA

The Maasai's autosomal DNA has been examined in a comprehensive study by Tishkoff et al. (2009) on the genetic affiliations of various populations in Africa. According to the study's authors, the Maasai "have maintained their culture in the face of extensive genetic introgression".^[27] Tishkoff et al. also indicate that: "Many Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations in East Africa, such as the Maasai, show multiple cluster assignments from the Nilo-Saharan [...] and Cushitic [...] AACs, in accord with linguistic evidence of repeated Nilotic assimilation of Cushites over the past 3000 years and with the high frequency of a shared East African–specific mutation associated with lactose tolerance."^[27]

The modern Maasai display significant West-Eurasian admixture at roughly ~20%. This type of West-Eurasian ancestry reaches up to 40-50% among specific populations of the Horn of Africa, specifically among the Amhara people. Genetic data and archeologic evidence suggest that East African pastoralists received West Eurasian ancestry (~25%) through Afroasiatic-speaking groups from Northern Africa or the Arabian Peninsula, and later spread this ancestry component southwards into certain Khoisan groups roughly 2,000 years ago, resulting in ~5% West-Eurasian ancestry among Southern African hunter-gatherers.^[28][29]

Y-DNA

A Y chromosome study by Wood et al. (2005) tested various Sub-Saharan populations, including 26 Maasai men from Kenya, for paternal lineages. The authors observed haplogroup E1b1b-M35 (not M78) in 35% of the studied Maasai.^[30] E1b1b-M35-M78 in 15%, their ancestor with the more northerly Cushitic men, who possess the haplogroup at high frequencies^[31] lived more than 13 000 years ago.^[32] The second most frequent paternal lineage among the Maasai was Haplogroup A3b2, which is commonly found in Nilotic populations, such as the Alur;^[30][33] it was observed in 27% of Maasai men. The third most frequently observed paternal DNA marker in the Maasai was E1b1a1-M2 (E-P1), which is very common in the Sub-Saharan region; it was found in 12% of the Maasai samples. Haplogroup B-M60 was also observed in 8% of the studied Maasai,^[30] which is also found in 30% (16/53) of Southern Sudanese Nilotes.^[33]

Mitochondrial DNA

According to an mtDNA study by Castri et al. (2008), which tested Maasai individuals in Kenya, the maternal lineages found among the Maasai are quite diverse but similar in overall frequency to that observed in other Nilo-Hamitic populations from the region, such as the Samburu. Most of the tested Maasai belonged to various macro-haplogroup L sub-clades, including L0, L2, L3, L4 and L5. Some maternal gene flow from North and Northeast Africa was also reported, particularly via the presence of mtDNA haplogroup M lineages in about 12.5% of the Maasai samples.^[34][35]

Culture

 

Maasai warriors confronting a spotted hyena, a common livestock predator, as photographed in In Wildest Africa (1907)

The monotheistic Maasai worship a single deity called Enkai, Nkai,^[13] or Engai. Engai has a dual nature, represented by two colours:^[13] Engai Narok (Black God) is benevolent, and Engai Na-nyokie (Red God) is vengeful.^[36]

There are also two pillars or totems of Maasai society: Oodo Mongi, the Red Cow and Orok Kiteng, the Black Cow with a subdivision of five clans or family trees.^[37] The Maasai also have a totemic animal, which is the lion. The killing of a lion is used by the Maasai in the rite of passage ceremony.^[38] The "Mountain of God", Ol Doinyo Lengai, is located in northernmost Tanzania and can be seen from Lake Natron in southernmost Kenya. The central human figure in the Maasai religious system is the laibon whose roles include shamanistic healing, divination and prophecy, and ensuring success in war or adequate rainfall. Today, they have a political role as well due to the elevation of leaders. Whatever power an individual laibon had was a function of personality rather than position.^[39] Many Maasai have also adopted Christianity or Islam.^[40] The Maasai produce intricate jewellery and sell these items to tourists.^[41]

 

Maasai people and huts with enkang barrier in foreground - eastern Serengeti, 2006

Educating Maasai women to use clinics and hospitals during pregnancy has enabled more infants to survive. The exception is found in extremely remote areas.^[42] A corpse rejected by scavengers is seen as having something wrong with it, and liable to cause social disgrace; therefore, it is not uncommon for bodies to be covered in fat and blood from a slaughtered ox.^[43][44]

Traditional Maasai lifestyle centres around their cattle,^[45] which constitute their primary source of food. A man's wealth is measured in cattle and children (note that the wives or women are also counted as part of the children). A herd of 50 cattle is respectable, and the more children the better. A man who has plenty of one but not the other is considered to be poor.^[46][47]

All of the Maasai's needs for food are met by their cattle. They eat their meat, drink their milk daily, and drink their blood on occasion. Bulls, goats, and lambs are slaughtered for meat on special occasions and ceremonies. Though the Maasai's entire way of life has historically depended on their cattle, more recently with their cattle dwindling, the Maasai have grown dependent on food such as sorghum, rice, potatoes and cabbage (known to the Maasai as goat leaves).^[48]

One common misconception about the Maasai is that each young man is supposed to kill a lion before he can be circumcised and enter adulthood. Lion hunting was an activity of the past, but it has been banned in East Africa – yet lions are still hunted when they maul Maasai livestock.^[49][50] Nevertheless, killing a lion gives one great value and celebrity status in the community. ^[51][52]

 

Maasai school in Tanzania

Body modification

 

Maasai woman with stretched earlobes

The piercing and stretching of earlobes are common among the Maasai as with other tribes, and both men and women wear metal hoops on their stretched earlobes. Various materials have been used to both pierce and stretch the lobes, including thorns for piercing, twigs, bundles of twigs, stones, the cross-section of elephant tusks and empty film canisters.^[53] Women wear various forms of beaded ornaments in both the ear lobe and smaller piercings at the top of the ear.^[54] Among Maasai males, circumcision is practised as a ritual of transition from boyhood to manhood. Women are also circumcised (as described below in social organisation).

This belief and practice are not unique to the Maasai. In rural Kenya, a group of 95 children aged between six months and two years were examined in 1991/92. 87% were found to have undergone the removal of one or more deciduous canine tooth buds. In an older age group (3–7 years of age), 72% of the 111 children examined exhibited missing mandibular or maxillary deciduous canines.^[55][56]

Genital cutting

 

Young Maasai warrior (a junior Moran) with headdress and markings

Traditionally, the Maasai conduct elaborate rite of passage rituals which include surgical genital mutilation to initiate children into adulthood. The Maa word for circumcision, "emorata," is applied to this ritual for both males and females.^[57] This ritual is typically performed by the elders, who use a sharpened knife and makeshift cattle hide bandages for the procedure. ^[58]

The male ceremony refers to the excision of the prepuce (foreskin). In the male ceremony, the boy is expected to endure the operation in silence. Expressions of pain bring dishonour upon him, albeit only temporarily. Importantly, any exclamations or unexpected movements on the part of the boy can cause the elder to make a mistake in the delicate and tedious process, which can result in severe lifelong scarring, dysfunction, and pain.^{[59][60][61][62]}

Young women also undergo excision ("female circumcision", "female genital mutilation," "emorata") as part of an elaborate rite of passage ritual called "Emuatare," the ceremony that initiates young Maasai girls into adulthood through ritual circumcision and then into early arranged marriages.^[63] The Maasai believe that female circumcision is necessary and Maasai men may reject any woman who has not undergone it as either not marriageable or worthy of a much-reduced bride price. In Eastern Africa, uncircumcised women, even highly educated members of parliament like Linah Kilimo, can be accused of not being mature enough to be taken seriously.^[64] The Maasai activist Agnes Pareyio campaigns against the practice. The female rite of passage ritual has recently seen excision replaced in rare instances with a "cutting with words" ceremony involving singing and dancing in its place. However, despite changes to the law and education drives the practice remains deeply ingrained, highly valued, and nearly universally practised by members of the culture.^[65][66]

Hair

 

Maasai woman with short hair

Upon reaching the age of 3 "moons", the child is named and the head is shaved clean apart from a tuft of hair, which resembles a cockade, from the nape of the neck to the forehead. ^[41] Warriors are the only members of the Maasai community to wear long hair, which they weave in thinly braided strands.^[67] Graduation from warrior to junior elder takes place at a large gathering known as Eunoto. The long hair of the former warriors is shaved off; elders must wear their hair short. Warriors who do not have sexual relations with women who have not undergone the "Emuatare" ceremony are especially honoured at the Eunoto gathering.^{[68][69][70][71]}

This would symbolise the healing of the woman.^[72]

Two days before boys are circumcised, their heads are shaved.^[73][74] When warriors go through the Eunoto and become elders, their long plaited hair is shaved off.^[75][76]

Music and dance

 

Traditional jumping dance

Maasai music traditionally consists of rhythms provided by a chorus of vocalists singing harmonies while a song leader, or olaranyani, sings the melody.^[77][78] Unlike most other African tribes, Maasai widely use drone polyphony.^[79]

Women chant lullabies, humming songs, and songs praising their sons. Nambas, the call-and-response pattern, repetition of nonsensical phrases, monophonic melodies, repeated phrases following each verse being sung on a descending scale, and singers responding to their verses are characteristic of singing by women.^{[80][81][82][83]} When many Maasai women gather together, they sing and dance among themselves.^[84]

Eunoto, the coming-of-age ceremony of the warrior, can involve ten or more days of singing, dancing and ritual. The warriors of the Il-Oodokilani perform a kind of march-past as well as the Adumu, or aigus, sometimes referred to as "the jumping dance" by non-Maasai. (Both adumu and aigus are Maa verbs meaning "to jump" with adumu meaning "To jump up and down in a dance".^[85][86][87])

Diet

 

A Maasai herdsman grazing his cattle inside the Ngorongoro crater, Tanzania

Traditionally, the Maasai diet consisted of raw meat, raw milk, honey and raw blood from cattle—note that the Maasai cattle are of the Zebu variety.

Most of the milk is consumed as fermented milk or buttermilk (a by-product of butter making). Milk consumption figures are very high by any standards.^[88][89]

The Maasai herd goats and sheep, including the Red Maasai sheep, as well as the more prized cattle.^[90][91]

Although consumed as snacks, fruits constitute a major part of the food ingested by children and women looking after cattle as well as morans in the wilderness.^[92][93][94]

Medicine

The Maasai people tend to use the environment when making their medicines due to the high cost of Western treatments. These medicines are derived from trees, shrubs, stems, roots, etc. These can then be used in a multitude of ways including being boiled in soups and ingested to improve digestion and cleanse the blood.^[95] Some of these remedies can also be used in the treatment or prevention of diseases. The Maasai people also add herbs to different foods to avoid stomach upsets and give digestive aid. The use of plant-based medicine is a crucial part of Maasai life.

Shelter

 

Shelter covered in cattle dung for waterproofing

^[96]

 

Panoramic view of Maasai Enkang, seen from the inside

 

Panoramic view of Maasai Enkang, seen from the outside

Clothing

 

A Maasai woman wearing her finest clothes

Maasai clothing symbolises ethnic group membership, a pastoralist lifestyle, as well as an individual's social position.^[97] From this they can decide the roles they undertake for the tribe. Jewellery also can show an individual's gender, relationship status, and age.^[97] Maasai traditional clothing is both a means of tribal identification and symbolism: young men, for example, wear black for several months following their circumcision.

The Maasai began to replace animal skin, calf hides and sheep skin with commercial cotton cloth in the 1960s.^[98]

Shúkà is the Maa word for sheets traditionally worn and wrapped around the body. These are typically red, sometimes integrated with other colours and patterns.^[99] One-piece garments known as kanga, a Swahili term, are common.^[100] Maasai near the coast may wear kikoi, a sarong-like garment that comes in many different colours and textiles^{[101][102][103]}

Influences from the outside world

 

Maasai women repairing a house in Maasai Mara (1996)

A traditional pastoral lifestyle has become increasingly difficult due to modern outside influences. Garrett Hardin's article outlining the "tragedy of the commons", as well as Melville Herskovits' "cattle complex" influenced ecologists and policymakers about the harm Maasai pastoralists were causing to savannah rangelands. This was later contested by some anthropologists.^[104] British colonial policymakers in 1951 removed all Maasai from the Serengeti National Park and relegated them to areas in and around the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA).

 

Maasai wearing protective masks during COVID-19 pandemic.

 

Maasai riding a motorcycle (2014)

Due to an increasing population, loss of cattle due to disease, and lack of available rangelands because of new park boundaries and competition from other tribes, the Maasai were forced to develop new ways of sustaining themselves. Many Maasai began to cultivate maize and other crops to get by, a practice that was culturally viewed negatively.^[104] Cultivation was first introduced to the Maasai by displaced WaArusha and WaMeru women who married Maasai men.^{[citation needed]}

In 1975 the Ngorongoro Conservation Area banned cultivation, forcing the tribe to participate in Tanzania's economy. They have to sell animals and traditional medicines to buy food. The ban on cultivation was lifted in 1992 and cultivation became an important part of Maasai livelihood once more. Park boundaries and land privatisation has continued to limit the Maasai livestock's grazing area.^[105]

Throughout the years, various projects have attempted to help the Maasai people. These projects help find ways to preserve Maasai traditions while also encouraging modern education for their children.^[106]

Emerging employment among the Maasai people include farming, business, and wage employment in both the public and private sectors.^[107]

Many Maasai have also moved away from the nomadic life to positions in commerce and government.^[108]

Eviction from ancestral land

The Maasai community was reportedly being targeted with live ammunition and tear gas in June 2022 in Tanzania, in a government plan to seize a piece of Maasai land for elite private luxury development. Lawyers, human rights groups, and activists who brought the matter to light claimed that Tanzanian security forces tried to forcefully evict the indigenous Maasai people from their ancestral land for the establishment of a luxury game reserve by Otterlo Business Corporation (OBC) for the royals ruling the United Arab Emirates. As of 18 June 2022, approximately 30 Maasai people had been injured and at least one killed, at the hands of the Tanzanian government Field Force Unit (FFU) while protesting the government’s plans of what it claims are delimiting a 1500 sq km of land as a game reserve, an act which violates a 2018 East African Court of Justice (EACJ) injunction on the land dispute, per local activists. By reclassifying the area as a game reserve, the authorities aimed to systematically expropriate Maasai settlements and grazing in the area, experts warned.^[109]

This was not the first time Maasai territory was encroached upon. Big-game hunting firms along with the government have long attacked the groups. The 2022 attacks are the latest escalation, which has left more than 150,000 Maasai displaced from the Loliondo and Ngorongoro areas as per the United Nations. A hunting concession already situated in Loliondo is owned by OBC, a company that has been allegedly linked to the significantly wealthy Emirati royal family as per Tanzanian lawyers, environmentalists as well as human rights activists. Anuradha Mittal, the executive director of the environmental think-tank, Oakland Institute cited that OBC was not a "safari company for just everyone, it has operations for the royal family".^[110]

A 2019 United Nations report described OBC as a luxury-game hunting company "based in the United Arab Emirates" that was granted a hunting license by the Tanzanian government in 1992 permitting "the UAE royal family to organise private hunting trips" in addition to denying the Maasai people access to their ancestral land and water for herding cattle.^[111]

When approached, the UAE government refrained from giving any statements. Meanwhile, the OBC commented on the matter without addressing alleged links with Emirati royals, stating that “there is no eviction in Loliondo” and calling it a "reserve land protected area" owned by the government.^[110]

Notable Maasai

• Linus Kaikai - Kenyan journalist and Chair of the Kenya Editors Guild
• Francis Ole Kaparo – Former Speaker of the National Assembly of Kenya
• James Ole Kiyiapi – associate professor at Moi University and permanent secretary in the Ministries of Education and Local Government
• Olekina Ledama – Founder, Maasai Education Discovery
• Josephine Lemoyan – social scientist, Tanzanian member of the 2017-2022 East African Legislative Assembly^[112]
• Nice Nailantei Lengete – First woman to address the Maasai elders council at Mount Kilimanjaro, and persuaded the council to ban female genital mutilation among the Maasai across Kenya and Tanzania
• Joseph Ole Lenku – Cabinet Secretary of Kenya for Interior and Coordination of National Government from 2012 to 2014
• Edward Lowassa – Prime Minister of Tanzania from 2005 to 2008. 2nd runner up to president John Pombe Magufuli in the 2015 Tanzania General Elections.
• Mbatian - Prophet after whom Batian Peak, the highest peak of Mount Kenya, is named
• Katoo Ole Metito – Member of Parliament for Kajiado South sub county
• Joseph Nkaissery – Former Cabinet Secretary of Kenya for Interior and Coordination of National Government from 2014 to his death in 2017
• William Ole Ntimama – Former Kenyan politician and leader of the Maa community
• David Rudisha – Middle-distance runner and 800-meter world record holder
• Jackson Ole Sapit - Sixth Archbishop and Primate of the Anglican Church of Kenya
• Edward Sokoine – Prime Minister of Tanzania from 1977 to 1980 and again from 1983 to 1984
• Samuel Ole Tunai - Former intelligence officer who served as the first governor of Narok county

See also

• Maasai mythology
• Maasai language
• Maa Civil Society Forum

References

1. "2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume IV: Distribution of Population by Socio-Economic Characteristics". Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. from the original on 5 June 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
2. Ethnologue report for language code:mas 2008-10-23 at the Wayback Machine ethnologue.com, '453,000 in Kenya (1994 I. Larsen BTL) ... 430,000 in Tanzania (1993)', Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Shai Amelie has Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International
3. "Lexicon". Darkwing.uoregon.edu. from the original on June 30, 2020. Retrieved June 30, 2020.
4. "Maasai". Collins English Dictionary. from the original on August 8, 2022. Retrieved December 9, 2019.
5. Maasai - Introduction 2008-07-04 at the Wayback Machine Jens Fincke, 2000–2003
6. Berntsen, John L. (Autumn 1976). "The Maasai and Their Neighbors: Variables of Interaction". African Economic History (2): 1–11. doi:10.2307/3601509. JSTOR 3601509. from the original on 2021-06-04. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
7. "The Maasai People". Maasai Association. from the original on May 18, 2020. Retrieved June 27, 2022.
8. "Kenya - Population Distribution". kenya.rcbowen.com. from the original on 2012-11-15. Retrieved 2007-08-25.
9. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 122.
10. A. Okoth & A. Ndaloh, Peak Revision K.C.P.E. Social Studies, East African, p.60–61.
11. Collins, Robert O. (2006). The southern Sudan in historical perspective. Transaction Publishers. pp. 9–10.
12. S. Wandibba et al., p.19–20.
13. "Maasai People". THIRTEEN. New York: PBS. 2001. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
14. International Labour Office (2000). Traditional occupations of indigenous and tribal peoples: emerging trends. International Labour Organization. p. 55.
15. Briggs, Phillip (2006). Northern Tanzania with Kilimanjaro and Zanzibar. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 200. ISBN 1-84162-146-3.
16. Falola, Toyin; Jennings, Christian (2003). Sources and Methods in African History: Spoken, Written, Unearthed. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 2, 18. ISBN 9781580461344. from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2012 – via Google Books.
17. . Blackwell Publishing. Archived from the original on 3 October 2012. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
18. "Rinderpest". Ntz.info. 14 February 1997. from the original on 20 May 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
19. Faris, Stephan (19 September 2004). . Time. Archived from the original on 16 May 2007.
20. Kitumusote. . Kitumusote. Archived from the original on 29 April 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
21. Adams, Jonathan S.; McShane, Thomas O. (1996). The Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation Without Illusion. University of California Press. p. 44. ISBN 0-520-20671-1. from the original on 2020-11-14. Retrieved 2020-11-01.
22. . 14 August 2007. Archived from the original on 14 August 2007. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
23. Singo, Leiyo (2022-08-03). "When Maasaiphobia Became Policy". The Republic. Retrieved 2023-06-07.
24. Pavitt, Nigel (2001). Africa's Great Rift Valley. New York: Harry N. Abrams Incorporated. p. 122. ISBN 0-8109-0602-3.
25. . 27 May 2008. Archived from the original on 12 February 2009. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
26. "The Maasai Tribe - Maasai History And Culture - Kenya Travel Guide". www.siyabona.com. from the original on 22 September 2019. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
27. Tishkoff, Sarah A.; Reed, Floyd A.; Friedlaender, Françoise R.; Ehret, Christopher; Ranciaro, Alessia; Froment, Alain; Hirbo, Jibril B.; Awomoyi, Agnes A.; Bodo, Jean-Marie; Doumbo, Ogobara; Ibrahim, Muntaser; Juma, Abdalla T.; Kotze, Maritha J.; Lema, Godfrey; Moore, Jason H.; Mortensen, Holly; Nyambo, Thomas B.; Omar, Sabah A.; Powell, Kweli; Pretorius, Gideon S.; Smith, Michael W.; Thera, Mahamadou A.; Wambebe, Charles; Weber, James L.; Williams, Scott M. (2009). "The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans". Science. 324 (5930): 1035–44. Bibcode:2009Sci...324.1035T. doi:10.1126/science.1172257. PMC 2947357. PMID 19407144. Also see Supplementary Data 2009-06-01 at the Wayback Machine.
28. Dobon, Begoña; Hassan, Hisham Y.; Laayouni, Hafid; Luisi, Pierre; Ricaño-Ponce, Isis; Zhernakova, Alexandra; Wijmenga, Cisca; Tahir, Hanan; Comas, David; Netea, Mihai G.; Bertranpetit, Jaume (2015-05-28). "The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 9996. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E9996D. doi:10.1038/srep09996. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4446898. PMID 26017457.
29. Pickrell, Joseph K.; Patterson, Nick; Loh, Po-Ru; Lipson, Mark; Berger, Bonnie; Stoneking, Mark; Pakendorf, Brigitte; Reich, David (2014-02-18). "Ancient west Eurasian ancestry in southern and eastern Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (7): 2632–2637. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.2632P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1313787111. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3932865. PMID 24550290.
30. Wood, Elizabeth T.; Stover, Daryn A.; Ehret, Christopher; Destro-Bisol, Giovanni; Spedini, Gabriella; McLeod, Howard; Louie, Leslie; Bamshad, Mike; Strassmann, Beverly I.; Soodyall, Himla; Hammer, Michael F. (2005). (PDF). European Journal of Human Genetics. 13 (7): 867–876. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201408. PMID 15856073. S2CID 20279122. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2010. (cf. )
31. Cruciani; et al. (May 2004). "Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa". American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (5): 1014–1022. doi:10.1086/386294. PMC 1181964. PMID 15042509. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013.
32. "The phylogenetic tree based on SNP data – Y-DNA haplogroup E-V22". from the original on 2020-02-16. Retrieved 2020-01-30.
33. Hassan (2008). "Y-chromosome variation among Sudanese: restricted gene flow, concordance with language, geography, and history". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 137 (3): 316–23. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20876. PMID 18618658.
34. Castrì, Loredana; Garagnani, Paolo; Useli, Antonella; Pettener, Davide; Luiselli, Donata (2008). "Kenyan crossroads: migration and gene flow in six ethnic groups from Eastern Africa" (PDF). Journal of Anthropological Science. 86: 189–92. PMID 19934476. (PDF) from the original on 2012-03-13. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
35. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 53, 54.
36. . Institut.veolia.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2007. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
37. "Maasai"_Tepilit Ole Saitoti 1980 Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York ISBN 978-0-8109-8099-0, 1990 edition.
38. Vries, Manfred F. R. Kets de (17 June 2014). Talking to the Shaman Within: Musings on Hunting. iUniverse. ISBN 9781491731512. from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
39. . Archived from the original on 4 May 1997. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
40. . www.shadowsofafrica.com. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
41. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 169.
42. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 103.
43. Cultural and Public Attitudes: Improving the Relationship between Humans and Hyaenas from Mills, M.g.L. and Hofer, H. (compilers). (1998) Hyaenas: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Hyaena Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. vi + 154 pp.
44. The Lions of Tsavo: Exploring the Legacy of Africa's Notorious Man-eaters By Bruce D. Patterson. 2004. McGraw-Hill Professional. Page 93. ISBN 0-07-136333-5
45. "Savanna: Folklore". THIRTEEN. New York: PBS. 2001. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
46. Northern Tanzania with Kilimanjaro and Zanzibar by Phillip Briggs (2006), page 200. ISBN 1-84162-146-3
47. Africa's Great Rift Valley. Nigel Pavitt. 2001. pages 138. Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York ISBN 0-8109-0602-3
48. Nelson, Jimmy. The Maasai Tribe. Beforethey.com
49. "Maasai Association". Maasai Association. from the original on 2012-06-18. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
50. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 24, 2009.
51. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 86–87.
52. Spencer, P. (1988) The Maasai of Matapato: a study of rituals of rebellion Manchester University Press, Manchester. Spencer, P. (2003) Time, Space, and the Unknown: Maasai configurations of power and providence. Routledge, London.
53. The Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation Without Illusion 2021-05-20 at the Wayback Machine. Jonathan S. Adams, Thomas O. McShane. 1996. University of California Press. page = 42. ISBN 0-520-20671-1
54. Culture and Customs of Kenya 2021-05-20 at the Wayback Machine. Neal Sobania. 2003. Greenwood Press. page 91. ISBN 0-313-31486-1
55. Hassanali J, Amwayi P, Muriithi A (Apr 1995). "Removal of deciduous canine tooth buds in Kenyan rural Maasai". East Afr Med J. 72 (4): 207–9. PMID 7621751.
56. Hiza JF, Kikwilu EN (Apr 1992). "Missing primary teeth due to tooth bud extraction in a remote village in Tanzania". Int J Paediatr Dent. 2 (1): 31–4. doi:10.1111/j.1365-263x.1992.tb00005.x. PMID 1525129.
57. "English - Maa". Darkwing.uoregon.edu. from the original on 2017-09-01. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
58. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 55, 94.
59. "Maasai Association". Maasai Association. from the original on 2019-10-27. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
60. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 83, 100–103.
61. Northern Tanzania - The Bradt Safari Guide by Phillip Briggs (2006). British Library. ISBN 1-84162-146-3
62. "Maasai Association". Maasai Association. from the original on 2019-10-27. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
63. . Orato.com. Archived from the original on 2011-08-07. Retrieved 2012-05-05.
64. "In-depth: Razor's Edge - The Controversy of Female Genital Mutilation". IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. March 2005. from the original on 2012-04-18. Retrieved 2012-05-05.
65. Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva; Wander, Katherine; Moreau, Amadou (2013-12-01). "Legislating Change? Responses to Criminalizing Female Genital Cutting in Senegal". Law & Society Review. 47 (4): 803–835. doi:10.1111/lasr.12044. ISSN 0023-9216. PMC 3997264. PMID 24771947.
66. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 168–173.
67. Gilbert, Elizabeth L. (2003). Broken Spears - a Maasai Journey. Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 136. ISBN 0-87113-840-9.
68. Tribal Odyssey - Maasai: The Last Dance Of The Warriors (Motion picture). National Geographic. 2005.
69. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 55, 88.
70. "Maasai People, Kenya". Maasai-association.org. from the original on 18 May 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
71. Gilbert, Elizabeth L. (2003). Broken Spears - a Maasai Journey. Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 82. ISBN 0-87113-840-9.
72. Ryan, Michael (1993). "The Demographic Crisis". Social Trends in Contemporary Russia. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 46–62. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-22858-4_4. ISBN 978-1-349-22860-7.
73. Maasai. Tepilit Ole Saitoti with photos by Carol Beckwith. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1980. page 79. ISBN 0-8109-8099-1
74. Maasai. Tepilit Ole Saitoti with photos by Carol Beckwith. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1980. pages 126, 129. ISBN 0-8109-8099-1
75. Maasai. Tepilit Ole Saitoti with photos by Carol Beckwith. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1980. page 171. ISBN 0-8109-8099-1
76. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 168.
77. (in Finnish). ilMurran. 1999-12-04. Archived from the original on 2007-04-28. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
78. . 2008-05-27. Archived from the original on November 4, 2011. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
79. Joseph Jordania. Why do People Sing? Music in Human Evolution. Logos. Pg 17
80. "Homophonic". Music.vt.edu. 2011-11-17. from the original on 2014-10-27. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
81. "What is monophony, polyphony, homophony, monody etc.?". Medieval.org. from the original on 2021-05-20. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
82. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 12, 43, 85, 100.
83. . 2008-05-27. Archived from the original on February 26, 2005. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
84. Maasai. Tepilit Ole Saitoti with photos by Carol Beckwith. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1980. pages 194. ISBN 0-8109-8099-1
85. "Maa - Categories". Darkwing.uoregon.edu. from the original on 2011-06-28. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
86. . 2008-05-27. Archived from the original on August 2, 2011. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
87. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 43–45, 100, 107.
88. "The technology of traditional milk products in developing countries". Fao.org. from the original on 2012-02-27. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
89. Suttie, J.M. . Archived from the original on 11 March 2009.
90. Bekure, Solomon; Leeuw, P. N. de; Grandin, B. E.; Neate, P. J. H., eds. (1991). "Maasai herding: An analysis of the livestock production system of Maasai pastoralists in eastern Kajiado District, Kenya" (PDF). International Livestock Centre for Africa. (PDF) from the original on 2021-07-11. Retrieved 2020-02-02 – via CGSpace.
91. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 87.
92. "Ethnobotany of the Loita Maasai: towards community management of the Forest of the Lost Child; experiences from the Loita Ethnobotany Project; People and plants working paper; Vol.:8; 2001" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 2012-06-07. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
93. Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 90.
94. "maasai-association.org".
95. Ryan, Kathleen (2000). "Edible Wild Plants as Digestive Aids" (PDF). Ethnoarchaeology in Maasailand. 42 (3): 2 – via Science & Archaeology.
96. "Maasai People, Kenya". Maasai-association.org. from the original on 2020-05-18. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
97. Kotowicz, Allison (2013). Maasai Identity in the 21st Century (MS thesis). University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. p. 78 – via African Studies Commons.
98. "Maasai". Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cultures. 1999. Archived from the original on 2012-07-08.
99. "Maa (Maasai) Dictionary". Darkwing.uoregon.edu. from the original on 2011-06-28. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
100. . Glcom.com. Archived from the original on 2012-02-17. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
101. "East Africa Living Encyclopedia". Africa.upenn.edu. from the original on 2019-10-22. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
102. Northern Tanzania with Kilimanjaro and Zanzibar by Phillip Briggs (2006), page 216. ISBN 1-84162-146-3
103. "Klumpp 1987, 105, 30, 31, 67". Smithsonianeducation.org. from the original on 2007-07-15. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
104. McCabe, Terrence. (2003). "Sustainability and livelihood diversification among the Maasai of Northern Tanzania". Human Organization. Vol 62.2. pp. 100–111.
105. Goodman, Ric. (2002). "Pastoral livelihoods in Tanzania: Can the Maasai benefit from conservation?" Current Issues in Tourism. Vol 5.3,4. P.280–286.
106. Siyabona Africa. "The Maasai Tribe, East Africa". Siyabona Africa. from the original on 22 September 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
107. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-24. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
108. D. Sendalo (April 2009). A Review of Land Tenure Policy Implication on Pastoralism in Tanzania (PDF) (Report). Department of Livestock Research, Training and Extension, Ministry of Livestock Development and Fisheries. p. 16. (PDF) from the original on 2022-02-17. Retrieved 2022-02-17.
109. "Maasai protesters shot, beaten as Tanzania moves forward with wildlife game reserve". Mongabay Environmental News. 2022-06-14. from the original on 2022-07-10. Retrieved 2022-07-29.
110. "Tanzanian Maasai battle eviction from ancestral land". Financial Times. 18 June 2022. from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
111. "Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment; the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health; the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples; and the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of internally displaced persons". OHCHR. from the original on 9 June 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2019.
112. "Newest 'Kids' in Tanzania's Political Block". The Citizen. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 15 April 2021. from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.

Bibliography

• Amin, Mohamed; Willetts, Duncan; Eames, John (1987). The Last of the Maasai. Camerapix Publishers International. ISBN 1-874041-32-6.

External links

 

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maasai.

• Maasai Aid Association
• Maasai Trust
• The Maasai People - History and Culture
• Maasai people, Kenya at the Maasai Association
• Indiana University Art Museum Arts of Kenya online collection
• Maasai Mara Tribe Facts