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Libertarianism in the United States

February 16, 2024

This article is about the origin, history and development of libertarianism in the United States. For the broader political philosophy that upholds liberty as a core principle, see Libertarianism. For the most common type of libertarianism in the United States, see Right-libertarianism.

In the United States, libertarianism is a political philosophy promoting individual liberty.[1][2][3][4][5][6] According to common meanings of conservatism and liberalism in the United States, libertarianism has been described as conservative on economic issues (economic liberalism) and liberal on personal freedom (civil libertarianism),[7] often associated with a foreign policy of non-interventionism.[8][9] Broadly, there are four principal traditions within libertarianism, namely the libertarianism that developed in the mid-20th century out of the revival tradition of classical liberalism in the United States[10] after liberalism associated with the New Deal;[11] the libertarianism developed in the 1950s by anarcho-capitalist author Murray Rothbard, who based it on the anti-New Deal Old Right and 19th-century libertarianism and American individualist anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker and Lysander Spooner while rejecting the labor theory of value in favor of Austrian School economics and the subjective theory of value;[12][13] the libertarianism developed in the 1970s by Robert Nozick and founded in American and European classical liberal traditions;[14] and the libertarianism associated with the Libertarian Party, which was founded in 1971, including politicians such as David Nolan[15] and Ron Paul.[16]

The historical Gadsden flag is frequently used to represent libertarianism in the U.S.

The right-libertarianism associated with people such as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick,[17][18] whose book Anarchy, State, and Utopia received significant attention in academia according to David Lewis Schaefer,[19] is the dominant form of libertarianism in the United States, compared to that of left-libertarianism.[20] The latter is associated with the left-wing of the modern libertarian movement[21] and more recently to the political positions associated with academic philosophers Hillel Steiner, Philippe Van Parijs and Peter Vallentyne that combine self-ownership with an egalitarian approach to natural resources;[22] it is also related to anti-capitalist, free-market anarchist strands such as left-wing market anarchism,[23] referred to as market-oriented left-libertarianism to distinguish itself from other forms of libertarianism.[24]

Libertarianism includes anarchist and libertarian socialist tendencies, although they are not as widespread as in other countries. Murray Bookchin,[25] a libertarian within this socialist tradition, argued that anarchists, libertarian socialists and the left should reclaim libertarian as a term, suggesting these other self-declared libertarians to rename themselves propertarians instead.[26][27] Although all libertarians oppose government intervention, there is a division between those anarchist or socialist libertarians as well as anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard and David D. Friedman who adhere to the anti-state position, viewing the state as an unnecessary evil; minarchists such as Nozick who recognize the necessary need for a minimal state, often referred to as a night-watchman state;[28] and classical liberals who support a minimized small government[29][30][31] and a major reversal of the welfare state.[32]

The major libertarian party in the United States is the Libertarian Party, but libertarians are also represented within the Democratic and Republican parties while others are independent. Through twenty polls on this topic spanning thirteen years, Gallup found that voters who identify as libertarians ranged from 17 to 23% of the American electorate.[33] However, a 2014 Pew Poll found that 23% of Americans who identify as libertarians have little understanding of libertarianism.[34] Yellow, a political color associated with liberalism worldwide, has also been used as a political color for modern libertarianism in the United States.[35][36] The Gadsden flag, a symbol first used by American revolutionaries, is frequently used by libertarians and the libertarian-leaning Tea Party movement.[37][38][39]

Although libertarian continues to be widely used to refer to anti-state socialists internationally,[25][40][41][42][43][44] its meaning in the United States has deviated from its political origins to the extent that the common meaning of libertarian in the United States is different from elsewhere.[17][26][27][28][45] The Libertarian Party asserts the following core beliefs of libertarianism: "Libertarians support maximum liberty in both personal and economic matters. They advocate a much smaller government; one that is limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence. Libertarians tend to embrace individual responsibility, oppose government bureaucracy and taxes, promote private charity, tolerate diverse lifestyles, support the free market, and defend civil liberties".[46][47]

Definition edit

Main article: Definition of anarchism and libertarianism

Since the 19th century, the term libertarian has referred to advocates for freedom of the will, or anyone who generally advocated for liberty, but its long association with anarchism extends at least as far back as 1858, when it was used for the title of New York anarchist journal Le Libertaire.[45][28] In the late 19th century around the 1880s and 1890s, Anarchist Sébastien Faure used the term libertarian to differentiate between anarchists and authoritarian socialists.[28] While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism,[28][48] its meaning has more recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups.[28] As a term, libertarian can include both the New Left and libertarian Marxists (who do not associate with a vanguard party) as well as extreme liberals (primarily concerned with civil liberties). Additionally, some anarchists use the term libertarian socialist to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasize its connections with socialism.[28][49]

The revival of free-market ideologies during the mid-to-late 20th century came with disagreement over what to call the movement. While many of its adherents prefer the term libertarian, many conservative libertarians reject the term's association with the 1960s New Left and its connotations of libertine hedonism.[50] The movement is divided over the use of conservatism as an alternative.[51] Those who seek both economic and social liberty within a capitalist order would be known as liberals, but that term developed associations opposite of the limited government, low-taxation, minimal state advocated by the movement.[52] Name variants of the free-market revival movement include classical liberalism, economic liberalism, free-market liberalism and neoliberalism.[50] As a term, libertarian or economic libertarian has the most colloquial acceptance to describe a member of the movement, with the latter term being based on both the ideology's primacy of economics and its distinction from libertarians of the New Left.[51]

According to Ian Adams: "Ideologically, all US parties are liberal and always have been. Essentially they espouse classical liberalism, that is a form of democratised Whig constitutionalism plus the free market. The point of difference comes with the influence of social liberalism" and the proper role of government.[10] Some modern American libertarians are distinguished from the dominant libertarian tradition by their relation to property and capital. While both historical libertarianism and contemporary economic libertarianism share general antipathy towards power by government authority, the latter exempts power wielded through free-market capitalism. Historically, libertarians including Herbert Spencer and Max Stirner have to some degree supported the protection of an individual's freedom from powers of both government and private property owners.[53] In contrast, while condemning governmental encroachment on personal liberties, some modern American libertarians support freedoms based on private property rights. Anarcho-capitalist theorist Murray Rothbard argued that protesters should rent a street for protest from its owners. The abolition of public amenities is a common theme in some modern American libertarian writings.[54]

According to definition in political science, libertarianism cannot be neither to the left or to the right as the resemblance between liberalism and libertarianism is superficial. Correctly understood, libertarianism resembles a view that liberalism historically defined itself against. And the same is the case for social democracy and conservative ideas, originating from liberal democracy. In essence, both political sides support basic rights and liberties, equality of opportunity, and the government's role in supporting efficient markets, public goods, which is incompatible with libertarianism. The idea of libertarianism rejects the notion that political power is a public power, which makes the idea incompatible with democracy as well, in which the state is represented through democratically elected subjects. Libertarianism is therefore most akin to "feudalism without feudal rulers", in which a network of private contracts is the ruling element. For that reason, libertarianism as a movement that only exists in America while Europe is devoid of libertarian movements after the 19th century.[55]

History edit

18th century edit

 
John Locke, regarded as the father of liberalism

During the 18th century and Age of Enlightenment, liberal ideas flourished in Europe and North America.[56][57] For philosopher Roderick T. Long, libertarians "share a common—or at least an overlapping—intellectual ancestry. [Libertarians] [...] claim the seventeenth century English Levellers and the eighteenth century French Encyclopedists among their ideological forebears; and [...] usually share an admiration for Thomas Jefferson[58][59][60] and Thomas Paine".[61]

The United States Declaration of Independence was inspired by Locke in its statement: "[T]o secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it".[62] According to American historian Bernard Bailyn, during and after the American Revolution, "the major themes of eighteenth-century libertarianism were brought to realization" in constitutions, bills of rights, and limits on legislative and executive powers, including limits on starting wars.[63]

According to Murray Rothbard, the libertarian creed emerged from the liberal challenges to an "absolute central State and a king ruling by divine right on top of an older, restrictive web of feudal land monopolies and urban guild controls and restrictions" as well as the mercantilism of a bureaucratic warfaring state allied with privileged merchants. The object of liberals was individual liberty in the economy, in personal freedoms and civil liberty, separation of state and religion and peace as an alternative to imperial aggrandizement. He cites Locke's contemporaries, the Levellers, who held similar views. Also influential were the English Cato's Letters during the early 1700s, reprinted eagerly by American colonists who already were free of European aristocracy and feudal land monopolies.[62]

In January 1776, only two years after coming to America from England, Thomas Paine published his pamphlet Common Sense calling for independence for the colonies.[64] Paine promoted liberal ideas in clear and concise language that allowed the general public to understand the debates among the political elites.[65] Common Sense was immensely popular in disseminating these ideas,[66] selling hundreds of thousands of copies.[67] Paine would later write the Rights of Man and The Age of Reason and participate in the French Revolution.[64] Paine's theory of property showed a "libertarian concern" with the redistribution of resources.[68]

19th and 20th century edit

 
Individualist anarchist Lysander Spooner, whose No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority greatly influenced libertarianism in the United States

In the 19th century, libertarian philosophies included libertarian socialism and anarchist schools of thought such as individualist and social anarchism. Key libertarian thinkers included Benjamin Tucker,[69][70][71] Lysander Spooner,[72] Stephen Pearl Andrews and William Batchelder Greene, among others.[26][27][73][74] While most of these anarchist thinkers advocated for the abolition of the state, other key libertarian thinkers and writers such as Henry David Thoreau,[75][76][77] Ralph Waldo Emerson[78] and Spooner in No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority[79] argued that government should be kept to a minimum and that it is only legitimate to the extent that people voluntarily support, leaving a significant imprint on libertarianism in the United States. The use of the term libertarianism to describe a left-wing position has been traced to the French cognate libertaire, a word coined in a letter French libertarian communist Joseph Déjacque wrote to anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in 1857.[26][27][28][45][80] While in New York City, Déjacque was able to serialize his book L'Humanisphère, Utopie anarchique (The Humanisphere: Anarchic Utopia) in his periodical Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social (Libertarian: Journal of Social Movement), published in 27 issues from June 9, 1858, to February 4, 1861.[81][82] Le Libertaire was the first libertarian communist journal published in the United States as well as the first anarchist journal to use libertarian.[26][27] Tucker was the first American born to use libertarian.[83] By around the start of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed.[84]

 
Benjamin Tucker, an invidualist anarchist who contrapposed his anarchist socialism to state socialism

Moving into the 20th century, the Libertarian League was an anarchist and libertarian socialist organization. The first Libertarian League was founded in Los Angeles between the two World Wars.[85] It was established mainly by Cassius V. Cook, Charles T. Sprading, Clarence Lee Swartz, Henry Cohen, Hans F. Rossner and Thomas Bell.[85] In 1954, a second Libertarian League was founded in New York City as a political organization building on the Libertarian Book Club. Members included Sam Dolgoff, Russell Blackwell, Dave Van Ronk, Enrico Arrigoni and Murray Bookchin. This Libertarian League had a narrower political focus than the first, promoting anarchism and syndicalism. Its central principle, stated in its journal Views and Comments, was "equal freedom for all in a free socialist society".[86] Branches of the Libertarian League opened in a number of other American cities, including Detroit and San Francisco. It was dissolved at the end of the 1960s.[87][88]

The 1960s also saw an alliance between the nascent New Left and other radical libertarians who came from the Old Right tradition like Murray Rothbard,[89] Ronald Radosh[90] and Karl Hess[91] in opposition to imperialism and war, especially in relation to the Vietnam War and its opposition. These radicals had long embraced a reading of American history that emphasized the role of elite privilege in shaping legal and political institutions, one that was naturally agreeable to many on the left, increasingly seeking alliances with the left, especially with members of the New Left, in light of the Vietnam War,[92] the military draft and the emergence of the Black Power movement.[93] Rothbard argued that the consensus view of American economic history, according to which a beneficent government has used its power to counter corporate predation, is fundamentally flawed. Rather, he argued that government intervention in the economy has largely benefited established players at the expense of marginalized groups, to the detriment of both liberty and equality. Moreover, the robber baron period, hailed by the right and despised by the left as a heyday of laissez-faire, was not characterized by laissez-faire at all, but it was in fact a time of massive state privilege accorded to capital.[94] In tandem with his emphasis on the intimate connection between state and corporate power, he defended the seizure of corporations dependent on state largesse by workers and others.[95] This tradition would continue through the 20th and 21st centuries, being taken up by the left-libertarian,[96] free-market anti-capitalism[21] of both Samuel Edward Konkin III's agorism[97][98][99] and left-wing market anarchism.[23][24]

Mid-20th century edit

 
H. L. Mencken, one of the first people to privately call himself libertarian

During the mid-20th century, many with Old Right or classical liberal beliefs began to describe themselves as libertarians.[11] Important American writers such as Rose Wilder Lane, H. L. Mencken, Albert Jay Nock, Isabel Paterson, Leonard Read (the founder of the Foundation for Economic Education) and the European immigrants Ludwig von Mises and Ayn Rand carried on the intellectual libertarian tradition. In fiction, one can cite the work of the science fiction author Robert A. Heinlein, whose writing carried libertarian underpinnings. Mencken and Nock were the first prominent figures in the United States to privately call themselves libertarians.[100][101][102] They believed Franklin D. Roosevelt had co-opted the word liberal for his New Deal policies which they opposed and used libertarian to signify their allegiance to individualism. In 1923, Mencken wrote: "My literary theory, like my politics, is based chiefly upon one idea, to wit, the idea of freedom. I am, in belief, a libertarian of the most extreme variety".[103]

As of the mid-20th century, no word was used to describe the ideological outlook of this group of thinkers. Most of them would have described themselves as liberals before the New Deal, but by the mid-1930s the word liberalism had been widely used to mean social liberalism.[citation needed] The word liberal had ceased to refer to the support of individual rights and limited government and instead came to denote left-leaning ideas that would be seen elsewhere as social-democratic. American advocates of classical liberalism bemoaned the loss of the word liberal and cast about for others to replace it.

 
Max Eastman, a former socialist who proposed the terms New Liberalism and liberal conservative

In August 1953, Max Eastman proposed the terms New Liberalism and liberal conservative which were not eventually accepted.[104] In May 1955, the term libertarian was first publicly used in the United States as a synonym for classical liberal when writer Dean Russell (1915–1998), a colleague of Leonard Read and a classical liberal himself, proposed the libertarian solution and justified the choice of the word as follows:

Many of us call ourselves "liberals." And it is true that the word "liberal" once described persons who respected the individual and feared the use of mass compulsions. But the leftists have now corrupted that once-proud term to identify themselves and their program of more government ownership of property and more controls over persons. As a result, those of us who believe in freedom must explain that when we call ourselves liberals, we mean liberals in the uncorrupted classical sense. At best, this is awkward and subject to misunderstanding. Here is a suggestion: Let those of us who love liberty trade-mark and reserve for our own use the good and honorable word "libertarian."[11]

 
Murray Rothbard, who popularized the term libertarian in the 1960s

Subsequently, a growing number of Americans with classical liberal beliefs in the United States began to describe themselves as libertarian. The person most responsible for popularizing the term libertarian was Murray Rothbard, who started publishing libertarian works in the 1960s.[105] Before the 1950s, H. L. Mencken and Albert Jay Nock had been the first prominent figures in the United States to privately call themselves libertarians.[100][101][102] In the 1950s, Russian-American novelist Ayn Rand developed a philosophical system called Objectivism, expressed in her novels The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged as well as other works which influenced many libertarians.[106] However, she rejected the label libertarian and harshly denounced the libertarian movement as the "hippies of the right".[107][108] Nonetheless, philosopher John Hospers, a one-time member of Rand's inner circle, proposed a non-initiation of force principle to unite both groups—this statement later became a required pledge for candidates of the Libertarian Party and Hospers himself became its first presidential candidate in 1972.[109][110] Along with Isabel Paterson and Rose Wilder Lane, Rand is described as one of the three female founding figures of the modern libertarian movement in the United States.[111]

Although influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists, themselves influenced by classical liberalism.[12] Rothbard thought they had a faulty understanding of economics because they accepted the labor theory of value as influenced by the classical economists while he was a student of neoclassical economics and supported the subjective theory of value. Rothbard sought to meld 19th-century American individualists' advocacy of free markets and private defense with the principles of Austrian economics, arguing that there is a "scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung".[13]

 
Barry Goldwater, whose libertarian-oriented challenge to authority had a major impact on the libertarian movement

Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater's libertarian-oriented challenge to authority had a major impact on the libertarian movement[112] through his book The Conscience of a Conservative and his 1964 presidential campaign.[113] Goldwater's speech writer Karl Hess became a leading libertarian writer and activist.[114] The Vietnam War split the uneasy alliance between growing numbers of self-identified libertarians and traditionalist conservatives who believed in limiting liberty to uphold moral virtues. Libertarians opposed to the war joined the draft resistance and peace movements and organizations such as Students for a Democratic Society. They began founding their own publications like Rothbard's The Libertarian Forum[115][116] and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance.[117] The split was aggravated at the 1969 Young Americans for Freedom convention when more than 300 libertarians coordinated to take control of the organization from conservatives. The burning of a draft card in protest to a conservative proposal against draft resistance sparked physical confrontations among convention attendees, a walkout by a large number of libertarians, the creation of libertarian organizations like the Society for Individual Liberty and efforts to recruit potential libertarians from conservative organizations.[118] The split was finalized in 1971 when conservative leader William F. Buckley Jr. attempted to divorce libertarianism from the movement, writing in a New York Times article as follows: "The ideological licentiousness that rages through America today makes anarchy attractive to the simple-minded. Even to the ingeniously simple-minded".[119]

 
David Nolan, founder of the Libertarian Party

As a result of the split, a small group of Americans led by David Nolan and a few friends formed the Libertarian Party in 1971.[120] Attracting former Democrats, Republicans and independents, it has run a presidential candidate every election year since 1972. Over the years, dozens of libertarian political parties have been formed worldwide. Educational organizations like the Center for Libertarian Studies and the Cato Institute were formed in the 1970s and others have been created since then.[121] Philosophical libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in academia with the publication in 1974 of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia, a response to John Rawls's A Theory of Justice (1971). The book proposed a minimal state on the grounds that it was an inevitable phenomenon that could arise without violating individual rights.[19] The book won a National Book Award in 1975.[122] According to libertarian essayist Roy Childs, "Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia single-handedly established the legitimacy of libertarianism as a political theory in the world of academia".[123]

British historians Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that by the 1970s Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights, identities and perspectives. They demanded greater personal autonomy and self-determination and less outside control. They angrily complained that the establishment was withholding it. They argue this shift in concerns helped cause Thatcherism and was incorporated into Thatcherism's appeal.[124] Since the resurgence of neoliberalism in the 1970s, this form of libertarianism has spread beyond North America and Europe,[125][126] having been more successful at spreading worldwide than other conservative ideas.[127] It has been noted that "[m]ost parties of the Right [today] are run by economically liberal conservatives who, in varying degrees, have marginalized social, cultural, and national conservatives".[128]

Late 20th century edit

See also: Right-libertarianism § By country
 
Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia helped spread libertarian ideas worldwide in the 1970s

Academics as well as proponents of the capitalist free-market perspectives note that libertarianism has spread beyond the United States since the 1970s via think tanks and political parties[129][130] and that libertarianism is increasingly viewed as a capitalist free-market position.[131][132] However, libertarian intellectuals Noam Chomsky,[43] Colin Ward[44] and others argue that the term libertarianism is considered a synonym for anarchism and libertarian socialism by the international community and that the United States is unique in widely associating it with the capitalist free-market ideology.[26][27][41][42] Modern libertarianism in the United States mainly refers to classical and economic liberalism. It supports capitalist free-market approaches as well as neoliberal policies and economic liberalization reforms such as austerity, deregulation, free trade, privatization and reductions in government spending in order to increase the role of the private sector in the economy and society.[29][30][31] This is unlike the common meaning[17][43][44] of libertarianism elsewhere,[28][41][42][45] with libertarianism being used to refer to the largely overlapping right-libertarianism, the most popular conception of libertarianism in the United States,[20][133] where the term itself was first coined and used by Joseph Déjacque to refer to a new political philosophy rejecting all authority and hierarchies, including the market and property.[26][27]

In a 1975 interview with Reason, California Governor Ronald Reagan appealed to libertarians when he stated to "believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism".[134] Ron Paul was one of the first elected officials in the nation to support Reagan's presidential campaign[135] and actively campaigned for Reagan in 1976 and 1980.[136] However, Paul quickly became disillusioned with the Reagan administration's policies after Reagan's election in 1980 and later recalled being the only Republican to vote against Reagan budget proposals in 1981,[137][138] aghast that "in 1977, Jimmy Carter proposed a budget with a $38 billion deficit, and every Republican in the House voted against it. In 1981, Reagan proposed a budget with a $45 billion deficit—which turned out to be $113 billion—and Republicans were cheering his great victory. They were living in a storybook land".[135] Paul expressed his disgust with the political culture of both major parties in a speech delivered in 1984 upon resigning from the House of Representatives to prepare for a failed run for the Senate and eventually apologized to his libertarian friends for having supported Reagan.[138] By 1987, Paul was ready to sever all ties to the Republican Party as explained in a blistering resignation letter.[136] While affiliated with both Libertarian and Republican parties at different times, Paul said he had always been a libertarian at heart.[137][138] Paul was the Libertarian Party candidate for president in 1988.[139]

In the 1980s, libertarians such as Paul and Rothbard[140][141] criticized President Reagan, Reaganomics and policies of the Reagan administration for, among other reasons, having turned the United States' big trade deficit into debt and the United States became a debtor nation for the first time since World War I under the Reagan administration.[142][143] Rothbard argued that the presidency of Reagan has been "a disaster for libertarianism in the United States"[144] and Paul described Reagan himself as "a dramatic failure".[136]

21st century edit

In the 21st century, libertarian groups have been successful in advocating tax cuts and regulatory reform. While some argue that the American public as a whole shifted away from libertarianism following the fall of the Soviet Union, citing the success of multinational organizations such as NAFTA and the increasingly interdependent global financial system,[145] others argue that libertarian ideas have moved so far into the mainstream that many Americans who do not identify as libertarian now hold libertarian views.[146] Circa 2006 polls find that the views and voting habits of between 10 and 20 percent (increasing) of voting age Americans may be classified as "fiscally conservative and socially liberal, or libertarian".[147][148] This is based on pollsters and researchers defining libertarian views as fiscally conservative and socially liberal (based on the common United States meanings of the terms) and against government intervention in economic affairs and for expansion of personal freedoms.[147] Through 20 polls on this topic spanning 13 years, Gallup found that voters who are libertarian on the political spectrum ranged from 17 to 23% of the electorate.[33] While libertarians make up a larger portion of the electorate than the much-discussed "soccer moms" and "NASCAR dads", this is not widely recognized as most of these vote for Democratic and Republican party candidates, leading some libertarians to believe that dividing people's political leanings into "conservative", "liberal" and "confused" is not valid.[149]

 
Former United States Rep. Ron Paul of Texas, who set off a surge of libertarian ideology in the US while running for head of state in 2008 and 2012

In the United States, libertarians may emphasize economic and constitutional rather than religious and personal policies, or personal and international rather than economic policies[150] such as the Tea Party movement (founded in 2009) which has become a major outlet for libertarian Republican ideas,[151][152] especially rigorous adherence to the Constitution, lower taxes and an opposition to a growing role for the federal government in health care. However, polls show that many people who identify as Tea Party members do not hold traditional libertarian views on most social issues and tend to poll similarly to socially conservative Republicans.[153][154][155] During the 2016 presidential election, many Tea Party members eventually abandoned more libertarian-leaning views in favor of Donald Trump and his right-wing populism.[156] Additionally, the Tea Party was considered to be a key force in Republicans reclaiming control of the House of Representatives in 2010.[157] Texas Congressman Ron Paul's 1988, 2008 and 2012 campaigns for the Republican Party presidential nomination were largely libertarian.[16] Along with Goldwater and others, Paul popularized laissez-faire economics and libertarian rhetoric in opposition to interventionism and worked to pass some reforms. Likewise, California Governor and future President of the United States Ronald Reagan appealed to cultural conservative libertarians due its social conservatism and in a 1975 interview with Reason stated: "I believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism".[158] However, many libertarians are ambivalent about Reagan's legacy as president due its social conservatism and how the Reagan administration turned the United States' big trade deficit into debt, making the United States a debtor nation for the first time since World War I.[159][160] Ron Paul was affiliated with the libertarian-leaning Republican Liberty Caucus[161] and founded the Campaign for Liberty, a libertarian-leaning membership and lobbying organization.[162] Rand Paul is a Senator who continues the tradition of his father Ron Paul, albeit more moderately as he has described himself as a constitutional conservative[163] and has both embraced[164] and rejected libertarianism.[165]

 
Former New Mexico Gov. Gary Johnson, nicknamed "Governor Veto", ran for head of state within the Libertarian Party in 2012 and 2016

Since 2012, former New Mexico Governor and two-time Libertarian Party presidential nominee Gary Johnson has been one of the public faces of the libertarian movement. The 2016 Libertarian National Convention saw Johnson and Bill Weld nominated as the 2016 presidential ticket and resulted in the most successful result for a third-party presidential candidacy since 1996 and the best in the Libertarian Party's history by vote number. Johnson received 3% of the popular vote, amounting to more than 4.3 million votes.[166] Johnson expressed a desire to win at least 5% of the vote so that the Libertarian Party candidates could get equal ballot access and federal funding, ending the two-party system.[167][168][169] While some political commentators have described Senator Rand Paul and Congressman Thomas Massie of Kentucky as Republican libertarians or libertarian-leaning,[164][170] they prefer to identify as constitutional conservatives.[163][165] One federal officeholder openly professing some form of libertarianism is Congressman Justin Amash, who represents Michigan's 3rd congressional district since January 2011.[171][172][173][174] Initially elected to Congress as a Republican,[175] Amash left the party and became an independent in July 2019.[176] In April 2020, Amash joined the Libertarian Party and became the first member of the party in the House of Representatives.[177] Following the 2022 Libertarian National Convention, the Mises Caucus, a paleolibertarian faction, became the dominant faction on the Libertarian National Committee.[178][179]

 
Only member of the Libertarian Party to win a seat in the United States Congress, Michigan Rep. Justin Amash

A variant of non-intellectual right-libertarianism that has been described as "growing in prominence", "changing the dynamics" of the conservative movement in the U.S.,[180] and even "largely defin[ing] the Republican coalition"[181] in the 2020s, has been dubbed "Barstool conservatism". First coined in 2021[182] by journalist Rod Matthew Walther,[183] the term describes a movement whose primary base of support is young non-religious males,[184][185][181] and combines total opposition to political correctness and "wokism" with the more traditional libertarian opposition to controls on the pursuits of pleasure (sex, gambling, pornography, alcohol).[184][181][185]

Anti-capitalist libertarianism has recently aroused renewed interest in the early 21st century. The Winter 2006 issue of the Journal of Libertarian Studies published by the Mises Institute was dedicated to reviews of Kevin Carson's Studies in Mutualist Political Economy.[186] One variety of this kind of libertarianism has been a resurgent mutualism, incorporating modern economic ideas such as marginal utility theory into mutualist theory.[187] Carson's Studies in Mutualist Political Economy helped to stimulate the growth of new-style mutualism, articulating a version of the labor theory of value incorporating ideas drawn from Austrian economics.[188]

Kremlintarianism edit

In 2022 in online libertarian community term "kremlintarians"/"kremlintarian" emerged as description of individuals claiming libertarian identity and at the same time defending totalitarian regimes and their imperialistic expansion. Mainly Russia and China.[189][190][191][192] Such tendencies among American movement was already debated online in the early mid '00s.[193]

Schools of thought edit

See also: Outline of libertarianism


Consequentialist and deontological libertarianism edit

There are broadly two ethical viewpoints within libertarianism, namely consequentialist libertarianism and deontological libertarianism. The first type is based on consequentialism, only taking into account the consequences of actions and rules when judging them and holds that free markets and strong property rights have good consequences.[194][195] The second type is based on deontological ethics and is the theory that all individuals possess certain natural or moral rights, mainly a right of individual sovereignty. Acts of initiation of force and fraud are rights-violations and that is sufficient reason to oppose those acts.[196]

Deontological libertarianism is supported by the Libertarian Party. In order to become a card-carrying member, one must sign an oath opposing the initiation of force to achieve political or social goals.[197] Prominent consequentialist libertarians include David D. Friedman,[198] Milton Friedman, Friedrich Hayek,[199][200][201] Peter Leeson, Ludwig von Mises[202] and R. W. Bradford.[203] Prominent deontological libertarians include Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Ayn Rand and Murray Rothbard.[196]

In addition to the consequentialist libertarianism as promoted by Hayek, Mark Bevir holds that there is also left and right libertarianism.[204]

Left and right libertarianism edit

Left-libertarianism and right-libertarianism is a categorization used by some political analysts, academics and media sources in the United States to contrast related yet distinct approaches to libertarian philosophy.[205][206][207] Peter Vallentyne defines right-libertarianism as holding that unowned natural resources "may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them, mixes her labor with them, or merely claims them—without the consent of others, and with little or no payment to them". He contrasts this with left-libertarianism, where such "unappropriated natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner".[208] Similarly, Charlotte and Lawrence Becker maintain that left-libertarianism most often refers to the political position that holds natural resources are originally common property while right-libertarianism is the political position that considers them to be originally unowned and therefore may be appropriated at-will by private parties without the consent of, or owing to, others.[209]

Followers of Samuel Edward Konkin III, who characterized agorism as a form of left-libertarianism[98][99] and strategic branch of left-wing market anarchism,[97] use the terminology as outlined by Roderick T. Long, who describes left-libertarianism as "an integration, or I'd argue, a reintegration of libertarianism with concerns that are traditionally thought of as being concerns of the left. That includes concerns for worker empowerment, worry about plutocracy, concerns about feminism and various kinds of social equality".[210] Konkin defined right-libertarianism as an "activist, organization, publication or tendency which supports parliamentarianism exclusively as a strategy for reducing or abolishing the state, typically opposes Counter-Economics, either opposes the Libertarian Party or works to drag it right and prefers coalitions with supposedly 'free-market' conservatives".[97]

While holding that the important distinction for libertarians is not left or right, but whether they are "government apologists who use libertarian rhetoric to defend state aggression", Anthony Gregory describes left-libertarianism as maintaining interest in personal freedom, having sympathy for egalitarianism and opposing social hierarchy, preferring a liberal lifestyle, opposing big business and having a New Left opposition to imperialism and war. Right-libertarianism is described as having interest in economic freedom, preferring a conservative lifestyle, viewing private business as a "great victim of the state" and favoring a non-interventionist foreign policy, sharing the Old Right's "opposition to empire".[211]

Although some libertarians such as Walter Block,[212] Harry Browne,[213] Leonard Read[214] and Murray Rothbard[215] reject the political spectrum (especially the left–right political spectrum)[215][216] whilst denying any association with both the political right and left,[217] other libertarians such as Kevin Carson,[218] Karl Hess,[219] Roderick T. Long[220] and Sheldon Richman[221] have written about libertarianism's left-wing opposition to authoritarian rule and argued that libertarianism is fundamentally a left-wing position.[24][222] Rothbard himself previously made the same point, rejecting the association of statism with the left.[223]

Thin and thick libertarianism edit

Thin and thick libertarianism are two kinds of libertarianism. Thin libertarianism deals with legal issues involving the non-aggression principle only and would permit a person to speak against other groups as long as they did not support the initiation of force against others.[224] Walter Block is an advocate of thin libertarianism.[225] Jeffrey Tucker describes thin libertarianism as "brutalism" which he compares unfavorably to "humanitarianism".[226]

Thick libertarianism goes further to also cover moral issues. Charles W. Johnson describes four kinds of thickness, namely thickness for application, thickness from grounds, strategic thickness and thickness from consequences.[227] Thick libertarianism is sometimes viewed as more humanitarian than thin libertarianism.[228] Wendy McElroy has stated that she would leave the movement if thick libertarianism prevails.[229]

Stephan Kinsella rejects the dichotomy altogether, writing: "I have never found the thick-thin paradigm to be coherent, consistent, well-defined, necessary, or even useful. It's full of straw men, or seems to try to take credit for quite obvious and uncontroversial assertions".[230]

Organizations edit

Alliance of the Libertarian Left edit

The Alliance of the Libertarian Left is a left-libertarian organization that includes a multi-tendency coalition of agorists, geolibertarians, green libertarians, left-Rothbardians, minarchists, mutualists and voluntaryists.[231]

Cato Institute edit

 
Cato Institute building in Washington, D.C.

The Cato Institute is a libertarian think tank headquartered in Washington, D.C. It was founded as the Charles Koch Foundation in 1974 by Ed Crane, Murray Rothbard and Charles Koch,[232] chairman of the board and chief executive officer of the conglomerate Koch Industries, the second largest privately held company by revenue in the United States.[233] In July 1976, the name was changed to the Cato Institute.[232][234]

The Cato Institute was established to have a focus on public advocacy, media exposure and societal influence.[235] According to the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report by the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program of the University of Pennsylvania, the Cato Institute is number 16 in the "Top Think Tanks Worldwide" and number 8 in the "Top Think Tanks in the United States".[236] The Cato Institute also topped the 2014 list of the budget-adjusted ranking of international development think tanks.[237]

Center for Libertarian Studies edit

The Center for Libertarian Studies was a libertarian educational organization founded in 1976 by Murray Rothbard and Burton Blumert which grew out of the Libertarian Scholars Conferences. It published the Journal of Libertarian Studies from 1977 to 2000 (now published by the Mises Institute), a newsletter (In Pursuit of Liberty), several monographs and sponsors conferences, seminars and symposia. Originally headquartered in New York, it later moved to Burlingame, California. Until 2007, it supported LewRockwell.com, web publication of vice president Lew Rockwell. It also had previously supported Antiwar.com, a project of the Randolph Bourne Institute.[238]

Center for a Stateless Society edit

The Center for a Stateless Society is a left-libertarian organization and free-market anarchist think tank.[239] Kevin Carson's Studies in Mutualist Political Economy aims to revive interest in mutualism in an effort to synthesize Austrian economics with the labor theory of value by attempting to incorporate both subjectivism and time preference.[240][241]

Foundation for Economic Education edit

The Foundation for Economic Education is a libertarian think tank dedicated to the "economic, ethical and legal principles of a free society". It publishes books and daily articles as well as hosting seminars and lectures.[242]

Free State Project edit

The Free State Project is an activist libertarian movement formed in 2001. It is working to bring libertarians to the state of New Hampshire to protect and advance liberty. As of July 2022, the project website showed that 19,988 people have pledged to move and 6,232 people identified as Free Staters in New Hampshire.[243]

Free State Project participants interact with the political landscape in New Hampshire in various ways. In 2017, there were 17 Free Staters in the New Hampshire House of Representatives,[244] and in 2021, the New Hampshire Liberty Alliance, which ranks bills and elected representatives based on their adherence to what they see as libertarian principles, scored 150 representatives as "A−" or above rated representatives.[245] Participants also engage with other like-minded activist groups such as Rebuild New Hampshire,[246] Young Americans for Liberty,[247] and Americans for Prosperity.[248]

Libertarian Party edit

The Libertarian Party is a political party that promotes civil liberties, non-interventionism, laissez-faire capitalism and limiting the size and scope of government. The first-world such libertarian party, it was conceived in August 1971 at meetings in the home of David Nolan in Westminster, Colorado,[15] in part prompted due to concerns about the Nixon administration, the Vietnam War, conscription and the introduction of fiat money. It was officially formed on December 11, 1971, in Colorado Springs, Colorado.[249]

Liberty International edit

The Liberty International is a non-profit, libertarian educational organization based in San Francisco. It encourages activism in libertarian and individual rights areas by the freely chosen strategies of its members. Its history dates back to 1969[250] as the Society for Individual Liberty founded by Don Ernsberger and Dave Walter.[251]

The previous name of the Liberty International as the International Society for Individual Liberty[252] was adopted in 1989 after a merger with the Libertarian International was coordinated by Vince Miller, who became president of the new organization.[253][254]

Mises Institute edit

 
Campus of the Mises Institute in Auburn, Alabama

The Mises Institute is a tax-exempt, libertarian educative organization located in Auburn, Alabama.[255] Named after Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises, its website states that it exists to promote "teaching and research in the Austrian school of economics, and individual freedom, honest history, and international peace, in the tradition of Ludwig von Mises and Murray N. Rothbard".[256] According to the Mises Institute, Nobel Prize winner Friedrich Hayek served on their founding board.[257]

The Mises Institute was founded in 1982 by Lew Rockwell, Burton Blumert and Murray Rothbard following a split between the Cato Institute and Rothbard, who had been one of the founders of the Cato Institute.[258] Additional backing came from Mises's wife Margit von Mises, Henry Hazlitt, Lawrence Fertig and Nobel Economics laureate Friedrich Hayek.[259] Through its publications, the Mises Institute promotes libertarian political theories, Austrian School economics and a form of heterodox economics known as praxeology ("the logic of action").[260][261]

Molinari Institute edit

The Molinari Institute is a left-libertarian, free-market anarchist organization directed by philosopher Roderick T. Long. It is named after Gustave de Molinari, whom Long terms the "originator of the theory of Market Anarchism".[262]

Reason Foundation edit

The Reason Foundation is a libertarian think tank and non-profit and tax-exempt organization that was founded in 1978.[263][264] It publishes the magazine Reason and is committed to advancing "the values of individual freedom and choice, limited government, and market-friendly policies". In the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report by the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program of the University of Pennsylvania, the Reason Foundation was number 41 out of 60 in the "Top Think Tanks in the United States".[265]

People edit

Intellectual sources edit

Politicians edit

Political commentators edit

Contentions edit

Political spectrum edit

 
The Nolan Chart, a political spectrum diagram created by libertarian activist David Nolan

Corey Robin describes libertarianism as fundamentally a conservative ideology united with more traditionalist conservative thought and goals by a desire to retain hierarchies and traditional social relations.[266] Others also describe libertarianism as a reactionary ideology for its support of laissez-faire capitalism and a major reversal of the modern welfare state.[32]

In the 1960s, Rothbard started the publication Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought, believing that the left–right political spectrum had gone "entirely askew". Since conservatives were sometimes more statist than liberals, Rothbard tried to reach out to leftists.[267] In 1971, Rothbard wrote about his view of libertarianism which he described as supporting free trade, property rights and self-ownership.[215] He would later describe his brand of libertarianism as anarcho-capitalism[268][269][270] and paleolibertarianism.[271][272]

Anthony Gregory points out that within the libertarian movement, "just as the general concepts "left" and "right" are riddled with obfuscation and imprecision, left- and right-libertarianism can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations".[211] Some libertarians reject association with either the right or the left. Leonard Read wrote an article titled "Neither Left Nor Right: Libertarians Are Above Authoritarian Degradation".[214] Harry Browne wrote: "We should never define Libertarian positions in terms coined by liberals or conservatives—nor as some variant of their positions. We are not fiscally conservative and socially liberal. We are Libertarians, who believe in individual liberty and personal responsibility on all issues at all times".[213]

Tibor R. Machan titled a book of his collected columns Neither Left Nor Right.[217] Walter Block's article "Libertarianism Is Unique and Belongs Neither to the Right Nor the Left" critiques libertarians he described as left (C. John Baden, Randy Holcombe and Roderick T. Long) and right (Edward Feser, Hans-Hermann Hoppe and Ron Paul). Block wrote that these left and right individuals agreed with certain libertarian premises, but "where we differ is in terms of the logical implications of these founding axioms".[212] On the other hand, libertarians such as Kevin Carson,[218] Karl Hess,[219] Roderick T. Long[220] and Sheldon Richman[221] consciously label themselves as left-libertarians.[21][24]

Objectivism edit

Main article: Objectivism
See also: Objectivism and libertarianism

Objectivism is a philosophical system developed by Russian-American writer Ayn Rand. Rand first expressed Objectivism in her fiction, most notably We the Living (1936), The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957), but also in later non-fiction essays and books such as The Virtue of Selfishness (1964) and Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal (1966), among others.[273] Leonard Peikoff, a professional philosopher and Rand's designated intellectual heir,[274][275] later gave it a more formal structure. Rand described Objectivism as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute".[276] Peikoff characterizes Objectivism as a "closed system" that is not subject to change.[277]

Objectivism's central tenets are that reality exists independently of consciousness, that human beings have direct contact with reality through sense perception, that one can attain objective knowledge from perception through the process of concept formation and inductive logic, that the proper moral purpose of one's life is the pursuit of one's own happiness, that the only social system consistent with this morality is one that displays full respect for individual rights embodied in laissez-faire capitalism and that the role of art in human life is to transform humans' metaphysical ideas by selective reproduction of reality into a physical form—a work of art—that one can comprehend and to which one can respond emotionally. The Objectivist movement founded by Rand attempts to spread her ideas to the public and in academic settings.[278]

Objectivism has been and continues to be a major influence on the libertarian movement. Many libertarians justify their political views using aspects of Objectivism.[279][280] However, the views of Rand and her philosophy among prominent libertarians are mixed and many Objectivists are hostile to libertarians in general.[281] Nonetheless, Objectivists such as David Kelley and his Atlas Society have argued that Objectivism is an "open system" and are more open to libertarians.[282][283] Although academic philosophers have mostly ignored or rejected Rand's philosophy, Objectivism has been a significant influence among conservatives and libertarians in the United States.[284][285]

Analysis, reception and criticism edit

Main article: Criticism of libertarianism

Criticism of libertarianism includes ethical, economic, environmental, pragmatic and philosophical concerns,[286][287][288][194][289][290] including the view that it has no explicit theory of liberty.[133] It has been argued that laissez-faire capitalism does not necessarily produce the best or most efficient outcome[291] and that its philosophy of individualism as well as policies of deregulation do not prevent the exploitation of natural resources.[292]

Michael Lind has observed that of the 195 countries in the world today, none have fully actualized a society as advocated by libertarians, arguing: "If libertarianism was a good idea, wouldn't at least one country have tried it? Wouldn't there be at least one country, out of nearly two hundred, with minimal government, free trade, open borders, decriminalized drugs, no welfare state and no public education system?"[293] Lind has criticized libertarianism for being incompatible with democracy and apologetic towards autocracy.[294] In response, libertarian Warren Redlich argues that the United States "was extremely libertarian from the founding until 1860, and still very libertarian until roughly 1930".[295]

Nancy MacLean has criticized libertarianism, arguing that it is a radical right ideology that has stood against democracy. According to MacLean, libertarian-leaning Charles and David Koch have used anonymous, dark money campaign contributions, a network of libertarian institutes and lobbying for the appointment of libertarian, pro-business judges to United States federal and state courts to oppose taxes, public education, employee protection laws, environmental protection laws and the New Deal Social Security program.[296]

Left-wing edit

Libertarianism has been criticized by the political left for being pro-business and anti-labor,[297] for desiring to repeal government subsidies to disabled people and the poor[298] and being incapable of addressing environmental issues, therefore contributing to the failure to slow global climate change.[299] Left-libertarians such as Noam Chomsky have characterized libertarian ideologies as being akin to corporate fascism because they aim to remove all public controls from the economy, leaving it solely in the hands of private corporations. Chomsky has also argued that the more radical forms of libertarianism such as anarcho-capitalism are entirely theoretical and could never function in reality due to business' reliance on the state as well as infrastructure and publicly funded subsidies.[300] Another criticism is based on the libertarian theory that a distinction can be made between positive and negative rights, according to which negative liberty (negative rights) should be recognized as legitimate, but positive liberty (positive rights) should be rejected.[301] Socialists also have a different view and definition of liberty, with some arguing that the capitalist mode of production necessarily relies on and reproduces violations of the liberty of members of the working class by the capitalist class such as through exploitation of labor and through alienation from the product of one's labor.[302][303][304][305][306]

Anarchist critics such as Brian Morris have expressed skepticism regarding libertarians' sincerity in supporting a limited or minimal state, or even no state at all, arguing that anarcho-capitalism does not abolish the state and that anarcho-capitalists "simply replaced the state with private security firms, and can hardly be described as anarchists as the term is normally understood".[307] Peter Sabatini has noted: "Within Libertarianism, Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state. However Rothbard's claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state. In its place he allows countless private states, with each person supplying their own police force, army, and law, or else purchasing these services from capitalist vendors. [...] Rothbard sees nothing at all wrong with the amassing of wealth, therefore those with more capital will inevitably have greater coercive force at their disposal, just as they do now".[308] For Bob Black, libertarians are conservatives and anarcho-capitalists want to "abolish the state to his own satisfaction by calling it something else". Black argues that anarcho-capitalists do not denounce what the state does and only "object to who's doing it".[309] Similarly, Paul Birch has argued that anarcho-capitalism would dissolve into a society of city states.[310]

Other libertarians have criticized what they term propertarianism,[311] with Ursula K. Le Guin contrasting in The Dispossessed (1974) a propertarian society with one that does not recognize private property rights[312] in an attempt to show that property objectified human beings.[313][314] Left-libertarians such as Murray Bookchin objected to propertarians calling themselves libertarians.[25] Bookchin described three concepts of possession, namely property itself, possession and usufruct, i.e. appropriation of resources by virtue of use.[315]

Right-wing edit

From the political right, traditionalist conservative philosopher Russell Kirk criticized libertarianism by quoting T. S. Eliot's expression "chirping sectaries" to describe them. Kirk had questioned the fusionism between libertarian and traditionalist conservatives that marked much of the post-war conservatism in the United States.[316] Kirk stated that "although conservatives and libertarians share opposition to collectivism, the totalist state and bureaucracy, they have otherwise nothing in common"[317] and called the libertarian movement "an ideological clique forever splitting into sects still smaller and odder, but rarely conjugating". Believing that a line of division exists between believers in "some sort of transcendent moral order" and "utilitarians admitting no transcendent sanctions for conduct", he included the libertarians in the latter category.[318][319] He also berated libertarians for holding up capitalism as an absolute good, arguing that economic self-interest was inadequate to hold an economic system together and that it was even less adequate to preserve order.[317] Kirk believed that by glorifying the individual, the free market and the dog-eat-dog struggle for material success, libertarianism weakened community, promoted materialism and undermined appreciation of tradition, love, learning and aesthetics, all of which in his view were essential components of true community.[317]

Author and professor Carl Bogus states that there were fundamental differences between libertarians and traditionalist conservatives in the United States as libertarians wanted the market to be unregulated as possible while traditionalist conservatives believed that big business, if unconstrained, could impoverish national life and threaten freedom.[320] Libertarians also considered that a strong state would threaten freedom while traditionalist conservatives regarded a strong state, one which is properly constructed to ensure that not too much power accumulated in any one branch, was necessary to ensure freedom.[320]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class". Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349 (online: "Part 1", "Part 2").
  2. ^ Becker, Lawrence C.; Becker, Charlotte B. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ethics: P–W. 3. Taylor & Francis. p. 1562.
  3. ^ Paul, Ellen F. (2007). Liberalism: Old and New. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 187.
  4. ^ Christiano, Thomas; John P. Christman (2009). Contemporary Debates in Political Philosophy. "Individualism and Libertarian Rights". Malden, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 121 June 12, 2020, at the Wayback Machine.
  5. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (March 3, 2009). "Libertarianism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, California: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010.
  6. ^ Bevir, Mark (2010). Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications; Cato Institute. p. 811.
  7. ^ Boaz, David; Kirby, David (October 18, 2006). The Libertarian Vote. Cato Institute.
  8. ^ Carpenter, Ted Galen; Innocent, Malen (2008). "Foreign Policy". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications; Cato Institute. pp. 177–180. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n109. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
  9. ^ Olsen, Edward A. (2002). US National Defense for the Twenty-First Century: The Grand Exit Strategy. Taylor & Francis. p. 182. ISBN 978-0714681405.
  10. ^ a b Adams, Ian (2001). Political Ideology Today (reprinted, revised ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0719060205.
  11. ^ a b c Russell, Dean (May 1955). . The Freeman. Foundation for Economic Education. 5 (5). Archived from the original on June 26, 2010. Retrieved March 6, 2010.
  12. ^ a b DeLeon, David (1978). The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-8018-2126-4. [O]nly a few individuals like Murray Rothbard, in Power and Market, and some article writers were influenced by [past anarchists like Spooner and Tucker]. Most had not evolved consciously from this tradition; they had been a rather automatic product of the American environment
  13. ^ a b Rothbard, Murray (1965) [2000]. "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View". Journal of Libertarian Studies. 20 (1): 7.
  14. ^ Van der Vossen, Bas (January 28, 2019). "Libertarianism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved August 23, 2020.
  15. ^ a b Martin, Douglas (November 22, 2010). "David Nolan, 66, Is Dead; Started Libertarian Party". New York Times. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
  16. ^ a b Caldwell, Christopher (July 22, 2007). "The Antiwar, Anti-Abortion, Anti-Drug-Enforcement-Administration, Anti-Medicare Candidacy of Dr. Ron Paul". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 22, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2012.
  17. ^ a b c Goodway, David (2006). Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 4. "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition".
  18. ^ Marshall, Peter (2008). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. p. 565. "The problem with the term 'libertarian' is that it is now also used by the Right. [...] In its moderate form, right libertarianism embraces laissez-faire liberals like Robert Nozick who call for a minimal State, and in its extreme form, anarcho-capitalists like Murray Rothbard and David Friedman who entirely repudiate the role of the State and look to the market as a means of ensuring social order".
  19. ^ a b Schaefer, David Lewis (April 30, 2008). "Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia" August 21, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. The New York Sun. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
  20. ^ a b Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America. London: Sage Publications. p. 1006. ISBN 1412988764.
  21. ^ a b c Long, Riderick T. "Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. (2012). The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy. p. 227.
  22. ^ Kymlicka, Will (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In Honderich, Ted. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0199264797. "'Left-libertarianism' is a new term for an old conception of justice, dating back to Grotius. It combines the libertarian assumption that each person possesses a natural right of self-ownership over his person with the egalitarian premise that natural resources should be shared equally. Right-wing libertarians argue that the right of self-ownership entails the right to appropriate unequal parts of the external world, such as unequal amounts of land. According to left-libertarians, however, the world's natural resources were initially unowned, or belonged equally to all, and it is illegitimate for anyone to claim exclusive private ownership of these resources to the detriment of others. Such private appropriation is legitimate only if everyone can appropriate an equal amount, or if those who appropriate more are taxed to compensate those who are thereby excluded from what was once common property. Historic proponents of this view include Thomas Paine, Herbert Spencer, and Henry George. Recent exponents include Philippe Van Parijs and Hillel Steiner."
  23. ^ a b Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 1–16.
  24. ^ a b c d Sheldon Richman (February 3, 2011). "Libertarian Left: Free-market anti-capitalism, the unknown ideal". The American Conservative. June 10, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 18, 2019.
  25. ^ a b c Bookchin, Murray (January 1986). "The Greening of Politics: Toward a New Kind of Political Practice". Green Perspectives: Newsletter of the Green Program Project (1). "We have permitted cynical political reactionaries and the spokesmen of large corporations to pre-empt these basic libertarian American ideals. We have permitted them not only to become the specious voice of these ideals such that individualism has been used to justify egotism; the pursuit of happiness to justify greed, and even our emphasis on local and regional autonomy has been used to justify parochialism, insularism, and exclusivity – often against ethnic minorities and so-called deviant individuals. We have even permitted these reactionaries to stake out a claim to the word libertarian, a word, in fact, that was literally devised in the 1890s in France by Elisée Reclus as a substitute for the word anarchist, which the government had rendered an illegal expression for identifying one's views. The propertarians, in effect – acolytes of Ayn Rand, the earth mother of greed, egotism, and the virtues of property – have appropriated expressions and traditions that should have been expressed by radicals but were willfully neglected because of the lure of European and Asian traditions of socialism, socialisms that are now entering into decline in the very countries in which they originated".
  26. ^ a b c d e f g The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective (December 11, 2008). "150 years of Libertarian". Anarchist Writers. The Anarchist Library. Retrieved January 31, 2020.
  27. ^ a b c d e f g The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective (May 17, 2017). "160 years of Libertarian". Anarchist Writers. Anarchist FAQ. Retrieved January 31, 2020.
  28. ^ a b c d e f g h i Marshall, Peter (2009). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. p. 641. "The word 'libertarian' has long been associated with anarchism, and has been used repeatedly throughout this work. The term originally denoted a person who upheld the doctrine of the freedom of the will; in this sense, Godwin was not a 'libertarian', but a 'necessitarian'. It came however to be applied to anyone who approved of liberty in general. In anarchist circles, it was first used by Joseph Déjacque as the title of his anarchist journal Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social published in New York in 1858. At the end of the last century, the anarchist Sébastien Faure took up the word, to stress the difference between anarchists and authoritarian socialists".
  29. ^ a b Goodman, John C. (December 20, 2005). "What Is Classical Liberalism?". National Center for Policy Analysis. Retrieved June 26, 2019. March 9, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
  30. ^ a b Boaz, David (1998). Libertarianism: A Primer. Free Press. pp. 22–26.
  31. ^ a b Conway, David (2008). "Freedom of Speech". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Liberalism, Classical. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 295–298, quote at p. 296. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n112. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Depending on the context, libertarianism can be seen as either the contemporary name for classical liberalism, adopted to avoid confusion in those countries where liberalism is widely understood to denote advocacy of expansive government powers, or as a more radical version of classical liberalism.
  32. ^ a b Baradat, Leon P. (2015). Political Ideologies. Routledge. p. 31. ISBN 978-1317345558.
  33. ^ a b Gallup Poll news release, September 7–10, 2006.
  34. ^ Kiley, Jocelyn (August 25, 2014). "In Search of Libertarians". Pew Research Center. "14% say the term libertarian describes them well; 77% of those know the definition (11% of total), while 23% do not (3% of total)."
  35. ^ Adams, Sean; Morioka, Noreen; Stone, Terry Lee (2006). Color Design Workbook: A Real World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design. Gloucester, Massachusetts: Rockport Publishers. pp. 86. ISBN 159253192X. OCLC 60393965.
  36. ^ Kumar, Rohit Vishal; Joshi, Radhika (October–December 2006). "Colour, Colour Everywhere: In Marketing Too". SCMS Journal of Indian Management. 3 (4): 40–46. ISSN 0973-3167. SSRN 969272.
  37. ^ "Tea Party Adopts 'Don't Tread On Me' Flag". NPR. March 25, 2010. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
  38. ^ Walker, Rob (October 2, 2016). "The Shifting Symbolism of the Gadsden Flag". The New Yorker. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
  39. ^ Parkos, Jack (May 2, 2018). . 71Republic. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
  40. ^ Rothbard, Murray (2009) [1970s]. (PDF). Mises Institute. ISBN 978-1610165013. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 3, 2015. Retrieved April 17, 2016. One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that, for the first time in my memory, we, 'our side,' had captured a crucial word from the enemy. 'Libertarians' had long been simply a polite word for left-wing anarchists, that is for anti-private property anarchists, either of the communist or syndicalist variety. But now we had taken it over.
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Bibliography edit

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Libertarianism in the United States.
  • Foundation for Economic Education. American libertarian organization founded in 1946.
  • Libertarianism.org. Sponsored by the Cato Institute, it discusses the history, theory and practice of American libertarianism.
  • Konkin's History of the Libertarian Movement. Archived July 8, 2011, at archive.today.

February 16, 2024
libertarianism, united, states, this, article, about, origin, history, development, libertarianism, united, states, broader, political, philosophy, that, upholds, liberty, core, principle, libertarianism, most, common, type, libertarianism, united, states, rig. This article is about the origin history and development of libertarianism in the United States For the broader political philosophy that upholds liberty as a core principle see Libertarianism For the most common type of libertarianism in the United States see Right libertarianism In the United States libertarianism is a political philosophy promoting individual liberty 1 2 3 4 5 6 According to common meanings of conservatism and liberalism in the United States libertarianism has been described as conservative on economic issues economic liberalism and liberal on personal freedom civil libertarianism 7 often associated with a foreign policy of non interventionism 8 9 Broadly there are four principal traditions within libertarianism namely the libertarianism that developed in the mid 20th century out of the revival tradition of classical liberalism in the United States 10 after liberalism associated with the New Deal 11 the libertarianism developed in the 1950s by anarcho capitalist author Murray Rothbard who based it on the anti New Deal Old Right and 19th century libertarianism and American individualist anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker and Lysander Spooner while rejecting the labor theory of value in favor of Austrian School economics and the subjective theory of value 12 13 the libertarianism developed in the 1970s by Robert Nozick and founded in American and European classical liberal traditions 14 and the libertarianism associated with the Libertarian Party which was founded in 1971 including politicians such as David Nolan 15 and Ron Paul 16 The historical Gadsden flag is frequently used to represent libertarianism in the U S The right libertarianism associated with people such as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick 17 18 whose book Anarchy State and Utopia received significant attention in academia according to David Lewis Schaefer 19 is the dominant form of libertarianism in the United States compared to that of left libertarianism 20 The latter is associated with the left wing of the modern libertarian movement 21 and more recently to the political positions associated with academic philosophers Hillel Steiner Philippe Van Parijs and Peter Vallentyne that combine self ownership with an egalitarian approach to natural resources 22 it is also related to anti capitalist free market anarchist strands such as left wing market anarchism 23 referred to as market oriented left libertarianism to distinguish itself from other forms of libertarianism 24 Libertarianism includes anarchist and libertarian socialist tendencies although they are not as widespread as in other countries Murray Bookchin 25 a libertarian within this socialist tradition argued that anarchists libertarian socialists and the left should reclaim libertarian as a term suggesting these other self declared libertarians to rename themselves propertarians instead 26 27 Although all libertarians oppose government intervention there is a division between those anarchist or socialist libertarians as well as anarcho capitalists such as Rothbard and David D Friedman who adhere to the anti state position viewing the state as an unnecessary evil minarchists such as Nozick who recognize the necessary need for a minimal state often referred to as a night watchman state 28 and classical liberals who support a minimized small government 29 30 31 and a major reversal of the welfare state 32 The major libertarian party in the United States is the Libertarian Party but libertarians are also represented within the Democratic and Republican parties while others are independent Through twenty polls on this topic spanning thirteen years Gallup found that voters who identify as libertarians ranged from 17 to 23 of the American electorate 33 However a 2014 Pew Poll found that 23 of Americans who identify as libertarians have little understanding of libertarianism 34 Yellow a political color associated with liberalism worldwide has also been used as a political color for modern libertarianism in the United States 35 36 The Gadsden flag a symbol first used by American revolutionaries is frequently used by libertarians and the libertarian leaning Tea Party movement 37 38 39 Although libertarian continues to be widely used to refer to anti state socialists internationally 25 40 41 42 43 44 its meaning in the United States has deviated from its political origins to the extent that the common meaning of libertarian in the United States is different from elsewhere 17 26 27 28 45 The Libertarian Party asserts the following core beliefs of libertarianism Libertarians support maximum liberty in both personal and economic matters They advocate a much smaller government one that is limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence Libertarians tend to embrace individual responsibility oppose government bureaucracy and taxes promote private charity tolerate diverse lifestyles support the free market and defend civil liberties 46 47 Contents 1 Definition 2 History 2 1 18th century 2 2 19th and 20th century 2 3 Mid 20th century 2 4 Late 20th century 2 5 21st century 2 5 1 Kremlintarianism 3 Schools of thought 3 1 Consequentialist and deontological libertarianism 3 2 Left and right libertarianism 3 3 Thin and thick libertarianism 4 Organizations 4 1 Alliance of the Libertarian Left 4 2 Cato Institute 4 3 Center for Libertarian Studies 4 4 Center for a Stateless Society 4 5 Foundation for Economic Education 4 6 Free State Project 4 7 Libertarian Party 4 8 Liberty International 4 9 Mises Institute 4 10 Molinari Institute 4 11 Reason Foundation 5 People 5 1 Intellectual sources 5 2 Politicians 5 3 Political commentators 6 Contentions 6 1 Political spectrum 6 2 Objectivism 7 Analysis reception and criticism 7 1 Left wing 7 2 Right wing 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External linksDefinition editMain article Definition of anarchism and libertarianism Since the 19th century the term libertarian has referred to advocates for freedom of the will or anyone who generally advocated for liberty but its long association with anarchism extends at least as far back as 1858 when it was used for the title of New York anarchist journal Le Libertaire 45 28 In the late 19th century around the 1880s and 1890s Anarchist Sebastien Faure used the term libertarian to differentiate between anarchists and authoritarian socialists 28 While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism 28 48 its meaning has more recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups 28 As a term libertarian can include both the New Left and libertarian Marxists who do not associate with a vanguard party as well as extreme liberals primarily concerned with civil liberties Additionally some anarchists use the term libertarian socialist to avoid anarchism s negative connotations and emphasize its connections with socialism 28 49 The revival of free market ideologies during the mid to late 20th century came with disagreement over what to call the movement While many of its adherents prefer the term libertarian many conservative libertarians reject the term s association with the 1960s New Left and its connotations of libertine hedonism 50 The movement is divided over the use of conservatism as an alternative 51 Those who seek both economic and social liberty within a capitalist order would be known as liberals but that term developed associations opposite of the limited government low taxation minimal state advocated by the movement 52 Name variants of the free market revival movement include classical liberalism economic liberalism free market liberalism and neoliberalism 50 As a term libertarian or economic libertarian has the most colloquial acceptance to describe a member of the movement with the latter term being based on both the ideology s primacy of economics and its distinction from libertarians of the New Left 51 According to Ian Adams Ideologically all US parties are liberal and always have been Essentially they espouse classical liberalism that is a form of democratised Whig constitutionalism plus the free market The point of difference comes with the influence of social liberalism and the proper role of government 10 Some modern American libertarians are distinguished from the dominant libertarian tradition by their relation to property and capital While both historical libertarianism and contemporary economic libertarianism share general antipathy towards power by government authority the latter exempts power wielded through free market capitalism Historically libertarians including Herbert Spencer and Max Stirner have to some degree supported the protection of an individual s freedom from powers of both government and private property owners 53 In contrast while condemning governmental encroachment on personal liberties some modern American libertarians support freedoms based on private property rights Anarcho capitalist theorist Murray Rothbard argued that protesters should rent a street for protest from its owners The abolition of public amenities is a common theme in some modern American libertarian writings 54 According to definition in political science libertarianism cannot be neither to the left or to the right as the resemblance between liberalism and libertarianism is superficial Correctly understood libertarianism resembles a view that liberalism historically defined itself against And the same is the case for social democracy and conservative ideas originating from liberal democracy In essence both political sides support basic rights and liberties equality of opportunity and the government s role in supporting efficient markets public goods which is incompatible with libertarianism The idea of libertarianism rejects the notion that political power is a public power which makes the idea incompatible with democracy as well in which the state is represented through democratically elected subjects Libertarianism is therefore most akin to feudalism without feudal rulers in which a network of private contracts is the ruling element For that reason libertarianism as a movement that only exists in America while Europe is devoid of libertarian movements after the 19th century 55 History edit18th century edit nbsp John Locke regarded as the father of liberalismDuring the 18th century and Age of Enlightenment liberal ideas flourished in Europe and North America 56 57 For philosopher Roderick T Long libertarians share a common or at least an overlapping intellectual ancestry Libertarians claim the seventeenth century English Levellers and the eighteenth century French Encyclopedists among their ideological forebears and usually share an admiration for Thomas Jefferson 58 59 60 and Thomas Paine 61 The United States Declaration of Independence was inspired by Locke in its statement T o secure these rights Governments are instituted among Men deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it 62 According to American historian Bernard Bailyn during and after the American Revolution the major themes of eighteenth century libertarianism were brought to realization in constitutions bills of rights and limits on legislative and executive powers including limits on starting wars 63 According to Murray Rothbard the libertarian creed emerged from the liberal challenges to an absolute central State and a king ruling by divine right on top of an older restrictive web of feudal land monopolies and urban guild controls and restrictions as well as the mercantilism of a bureaucratic warfaring state allied with privileged merchants The object of liberals was individual liberty in the economy in personal freedoms and civil liberty separation of state and religion and peace as an alternative to imperial aggrandizement He cites Locke s contemporaries the Levellers who held similar views Also influential were the English Cato s Letters during the early 1700s reprinted eagerly by American colonists who already were free of European aristocracy and feudal land monopolies 62 In January 1776 only two years after coming to America from England Thomas Paine published his pamphlet Common Sense calling for independence for the colonies 64 Paine promoted liberal ideas in clear and concise language that allowed the general public to understand the debates among the political elites 65 Common Sense was immensely popular in disseminating these ideas 66 selling hundreds of thousands of copies 67 Paine would later write the Rights of Man and The Age of Reason and participate in the French Revolution 64 Paine s theory of property showed a libertarian concern with the redistribution of resources 68 19th and 20th century edit nbsp Individualist anarchist Lysander Spooner whose No Treason The Constitution of No Authority greatly influenced libertarianism in the United StatesIn the 19th century libertarian philosophies included libertarian socialism and anarchist schools of thought such as individualist and social anarchism Key libertarian thinkers included Benjamin Tucker 69 70 71 Lysander Spooner 72 Stephen Pearl Andrews and William Batchelder Greene among others 26 27 73 74 While most of these anarchist thinkers advocated for the abolition of the state other key libertarian thinkers and writers such as Henry David Thoreau 75 76 77 Ralph Waldo Emerson 78 and Spooner in No Treason The Constitution of No Authority 79 argued that government should be kept to a minimum and that it is only legitimate to the extent that people voluntarily support leaving a significant imprint on libertarianism in the United States The use of the term libertarianism to describe a left wing position has been traced to the French cognate libertaire a word coined in a letter French libertarian communist Joseph Dejacque wrote to anarchist Pierre Joseph Proudhon in 1857 26 27 28 45 80 While in New York City Dejacque was able to serialize his book L Humanisphere Utopie anarchique The Humanisphere Anarchic Utopia in his periodical Le Libertaire Journal du Mouvement Social Libertarian Journal of Social Movement published in 27 issues from June 9 1858 to February 4 1861 81 82 Le Libertaire was the first libertarian communist journal published in the United States as well as the first anarchist journal to use libertarian 26 27 Tucker was the first American born to use libertarian 83 By around the start of the 20th century the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed 84 nbsp Benjamin Tucker an invidualist anarchist who contrapposed his anarchist socialism to state socialismMoving into the 20th century the Libertarian League was an anarchist and libertarian socialist organization The first Libertarian League was founded in Los Angeles between the two World Wars 85 It was established mainly by Cassius V Cook Charles T Sprading Clarence Lee Swartz Henry Cohen Hans F Rossner and Thomas Bell 85 In 1954 a second Libertarian League was founded in New York City as a political organization building on the Libertarian Book Club Members included Sam Dolgoff Russell Blackwell Dave Van Ronk Enrico Arrigoni and Murray Bookchin This Libertarian League had a narrower political focus than the first promoting anarchism and syndicalism Its central principle stated in its journal Views and Comments was equal freedom for all in a free socialist society 86 Branches of the Libertarian League opened in a number of other American cities including Detroit and San Francisco It was dissolved at the end of the 1960s 87 88 The 1960s also saw an alliance between the nascent New Left and other radical libertarians who came from the Old Right tradition like Murray Rothbard 89 Ronald Radosh 90 and Karl Hess 91 in opposition to imperialism and war especially in relation to the Vietnam War and its opposition These radicals had long embraced a reading of American history that emphasized the role of elite privilege in shaping legal and political institutions one that was naturally agreeable to many on the left increasingly seeking alliances with the left especially with members of the New Left in light of the Vietnam War 92 the military draft and the emergence of the Black Power movement 93 Rothbard argued that the consensus view of American economic history according to which a beneficent government has used its power to counter corporate predation is fundamentally flawed Rather he argued that government intervention in the economy has largely benefited established players at the expense of marginalized groups to the detriment of both liberty and equality Moreover the robber baron period hailed by the right and despised by the left as a heyday of laissez faire was not characterized by laissez faire at all but it was in fact a time of massive state privilege accorded to capital 94 In tandem with his emphasis on the intimate connection between state and corporate power he defended the seizure of corporations dependent on state largesse by workers and others 95 This tradition would continue through the 20th and 21st centuries being taken up by the left libertarian 96 free market anti capitalism 21 of both Samuel Edward Konkin III s agorism 97 98 99 and left wing market anarchism 23 24 Mid 20th century edit nbsp H L Mencken one of the first people to privately call himself libertarianDuring the mid 20th century many with Old Right or classical liberal beliefs began to describe themselves as libertarians 11 Important American writers such as Rose Wilder Lane H L Mencken Albert Jay Nock Isabel Paterson Leonard Read the founder of the Foundation for Economic Education and the European immigrants Ludwig von Mises and Ayn Rand carried on the intellectual libertarian tradition In fiction one can cite the work of the science fiction author Robert A Heinlein whose writing carried libertarian underpinnings Mencken and Nock were the first prominent figures in the United States to privately call themselves libertarians 100 101 102 They believed Franklin D Roosevelt had co opted the word liberal for his New Deal policies which they opposed and used libertarian to signify their allegiance to individualism In 1923 Mencken wrote My literary theory like my politics is based chiefly upon one idea to wit the idea of freedom I am in belief a libertarian of the most extreme variety 103 As of the mid 20th century no word was used to describe the ideological outlook of this group of thinkers Most of them would have described themselves as liberals before the New Deal but by the mid 1930s the word liberalism had been widely used to mean social liberalism citation needed The word liberal had ceased to refer to the support of individual rights and limited government and instead came to denote left leaning ideas that would be seen elsewhere as social democratic American advocates of classical liberalism bemoaned the loss of the word liberal and cast about for others to replace it nbsp Max Eastman a former socialist who proposed the terms New Liberalism and liberal conservativeIn August 1953 Max Eastman proposed the terms New Liberalism and liberal conservative which were not eventually accepted 104 In May 1955 the term libertarian was first publicly used in the United States as a synonym for classical liberal when writer Dean Russell 1915 1998 a colleague of Leonard Read and a classical liberal himself proposed the libertarian solution and justified the choice of the word as follows Many of us call ourselves liberals And it is true that the word liberal once described persons who respected the individual and feared the use of mass compulsions But the leftists have now corrupted that once proud term to identify themselves and their program of more government ownership of property and more controls over persons As a result those of us who believe in freedom must explain that when we call ourselves liberals we mean liberals in the uncorrupted classical sense At best this is awkward and subject to misunderstanding Here is a suggestion Let those of us who love liberty trade mark and reserve for our own use the good and honorable word libertarian 11 nbsp Murray Rothbard who popularized the term libertarian in the 1960sSubsequently a growing number of Americans with classical liberal beliefs in the United States began to describe themselves as libertarian The person most responsible for popularizing the term libertarian was Murray Rothbard who started publishing libertarian works in the 1960s 105 Before the 1950s H L Mencken and Albert Jay Nock had been the first prominent figures in the United States to privately call themselves libertarians 100 101 102 In the 1950s Russian American novelist Ayn Rand developed a philosophical system called Objectivism expressed in her novels The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged as well as other works which influenced many libertarians 106 However she rejected the label libertarian and harshly denounced the libertarian movement as the hippies of the right 107 108 Nonetheless philosopher John Hospers a one time member of Rand s inner circle proposed a non initiation of force principle to unite both groups this statement later became a required pledge for candidates of the Libertarian Party and Hospers himself became its first presidential candidate in 1972 109 110 Along with Isabel Paterson and Rose Wilder Lane Rand is described as one of the three female founding figures of the modern libertarian movement in the United States 111 Although influenced by the work of the 19th century American individualist anarchists themselves influenced by classical liberalism 12 Rothbard thought they had a faulty understanding of economics because they accepted the labor theory of value as influenced by the classical economists while he was a student of neoclassical economics and supported the subjective theory of value Rothbard sought to meld 19th century American individualists advocacy of free markets and private defense with the principles of Austrian economics arguing that there is a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market and of the consequences of government intervention in that market which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung 13 nbsp Barry Goldwater whose libertarian oriented challenge to authority had a major impact on the libertarian movementArizona Senator Barry Goldwater s libertarian oriented challenge to authority had a major impact on the libertarian movement 112 through his book The Conscience of a Conservative and his 1964 presidential campaign 113 Goldwater s speech writer Karl Hess became a leading libertarian writer and activist 114 The Vietnam War split the uneasy alliance between growing numbers of self identified libertarians and traditionalist conservatives who believed in limiting liberty to uphold moral virtues Libertarians opposed to the war joined the draft resistance and peace movements and organizations such as Students for a Democratic Society They began founding their own publications like Rothbard s The Libertarian Forum 115 116 and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance 117 The split was aggravated at the 1969 Young Americans for Freedom convention when more than 300 libertarians coordinated to take control of the organization from conservatives The burning of a draft card in protest to a conservative proposal against draft resistance sparked physical confrontations among convention attendees a walkout by a large number of libertarians the creation of libertarian organizations like the Society for Individual Liberty and efforts to recruit potential libertarians from conservative organizations 118 The split was finalized in 1971 when conservative leader William F Buckley Jr attempted to divorce libertarianism from the movement writing in a New York Times article as follows The ideological licentiousness that rages through America today makes anarchy attractive to the simple minded Even to the ingeniously simple minded 119 nbsp David Nolan founder of the Libertarian PartyAs a result of the split a small group of Americans led by David Nolan and a few friends formed the Libertarian Party in 1971 120 Attracting former Democrats Republicans and independents it has run a presidential candidate every election year since 1972 Over the years dozens of libertarian political parties have been formed worldwide Educational organizations like the Center for Libertarian Studies and the Cato Institute were formed in the 1970s and others have been created since then 121 Philosophical libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in academia with the publication in 1974 of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick s Anarchy State and Utopia a response to John Rawls s A Theory of Justice 1971 The book proposed a minimal state on the grounds that it was an inevitable phenomenon that could arise without violating individual rights 19 The book won a National Book Award in 1975 122 According to libertarian essayist Roy Childs Nozick s Anarchy State and Utopia single handedly established the legitimacy of libertarianism as a political theory in the world of academia 123 British historians Emily Robinson Camilla Schofield Florence Sutcliffe Braithwaite and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that by the 1970s Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights identities and perspectives They demanded greater personal autonomy and self determination and less outside control They angrily complained that the establishment was withholding it They argue this shift in concerns helped cause Thatcherism and was incorporated into Thatcherism s appeal 124 Since the resurgence of neoliberalism in the 1970s this form of libertarianism has spread beyond North America and Europe 125 126 having been more successful at spreading worldwide than other conservative ideas 127 It has been noted that m ost parties of the Right today are run by economically liberal conservatives who in varying degrees have marginalized social cultural and national conservatives 128 Late 20th century edit See also Right libertarianism By country nbsp Robert Nozick s Anarchy State and Utopia helped spread libertarian ideas worldwide in the 1970sAcademics as well as proponents of the capitalist free market perspectives note that libertarianism has spread beyond the United States since the 1970s via think tanks and political parties 129 130 and that libertarianism is increasingly viewed as a capitalist free market position 131 132 However libertarian intellectuals Noam Chomsky 43 Colin Ward 44 and others argue that the term libertarianism is considered a synonym for anarchism and libertarian socialism by the international community and that the United States is unique in widely associating it with the capitalist free market ideology 26 27 41 42 Modern libertarianism in the United States mainly refers to classical and economic liberalism It supports capitalist free market approaches as well as neoliberal policies and economic liberalization reforms such as austerity deregulation free trade privatization and reductions in government spending in order to increase the role of the private sector in the economy and society 29 30 31 This is unlike the common meaning 17 43 44 of libertarianism elsewhere 28 41 42 45 with libertarianism being used to refer to the largely overlapping right libertarianism the most popular conception of libertarianism in the United States 20 133 where the term itself was first coined and used by Joseph Dejacque to refer to a new political philosophy rejecting all authority and hierarchies including the market and property 26 27 In a 1975 interview with Reason California Governor Ronald Reagan appealed to libertarians when he stated to believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism 134 Ron Paul was one of the first elected officials in the nation to support Reagan s presidential campaign 135 and actively campaigned for Reagan in 1976 and 1980 136 However Paul quickly became disillusioned with the Reagan administration s policies after Reagan s election in 1980 and later recalled being the only Republican to vote against Reagan budget proposals in 1981 137 138 aghast that in 1977 Jimmy Carter proposed a budget with a 38 billion deficit and every Republican in the House voted against it In 1981 Reagan proposed a budget with a 45 billion deficit which turned out to be 113 billion and Republicans were cheering his great victory They were living in a storybook land 135 Paul expressed his disgust with the political culture of both major parties in a speech delivered in 1984 upon resigning from the House of Representatives to prepare for a failed run for the Senate and eventually apologized to his libertarian friends for having supported Reagan 138 By 1987 Paul was ready to sever all ties to the Republican Party as explained in a blistering resignation letter 136 While affiliated with both Libertarian and Republican parties at different times Paul said he had always been a libertarian at heart 137 138 Paul was the Libertarian Party candidate for president in 1988 139 In the 1980s libertarians such as Paul and Rothbard 140 141 criticized President Reagan Reaganomics and policies of the Reagan administration for among other reasons having turned the United States big trade deficit into debt and the United States became a debtor nation for the first time since World War I under the Reagan administration 142 143 Rothbard argued that the presidency of Reagan has been a disaster for libertarianism in the United States 144 and Paul described Reagan himself as a dramatic failure 136 21st century edit In the 21st century libertarian groups have been successful in advocating tax cuts and regulatory reform While some argue that the American public as a whole shifted away from libertarianism following the fall of the Soviet Union citing the success of multinational organizations such as NAFTA and the increasingly interdependent global financial system 145 others argue that libertarian ideas have moved so far into the mainstream that many Americans who do not identify as libertarian now hold libertarian views 146 Circa 2006 polls find that the views and voting habits of between 10 and 20 percent increasing of voting age Americans may be classified as fiscally conservative and socially liberal or libertarian 147 148 This is based on pollsters and researchers defining libertarian views as fiscally conservative and socially liberal based on the common United States meanings of the terms and against government intervention in economic affairs and for expansion of personal freedoms 147 Through 20 polls on this topic spanning 13 years Gallup found that voters who are libertarian on the political spectrum ranged from 17 to 23 of the electorate 33 While libertarians make up a larger portion of the electorate than the much discussed soccer moms and NASCAR dads this is not widely recognized as most of these vote for Democratic and Republican party candidates leading some libertarians to believe that dividing people s political leanings into conservative liberal and confused is not valid 149 nbsp Former United States Rep Ron Paul of Texas who set off a surge of libertarian ideology in the US while running for head of state in 2008 and 2012In the United States libertarians may emphasize economic and constitutional rather than religious and personal policies or personal and international rather than economic policies 150 such as the Tea Party movement founded in 2009 which has become a major outlet for libertarian Republican ideas 151 152 especially rigorous adherence to the Constitution lower taxes and an opposition to a growing role for the federal government in health care However polls show that many people who identify as Tea Party members do not hold traditional libertarian views on most social issues and tend to poll similarly to socially conservative Republicans 153 154 155 During the 2016 presidential election many Tea Party members eventually abandoned more libertarian leaning views in favor of Donald Trump and his right wing populism 156 Additionally the Tea Party was considered to be a key force in Republicans reclaiming control of the House of Representatives in 2010 157 Texas Congressman Ron Paul s 1988 2008 and 2012 campaigns for the Republican Party presidential nomination were largely libertarian 16 Along with Goldwater and others Paul popularized laissez faire economics and libertarian rhetoric in opposition to interventionism and worked to pass some reforms Likewise California Governor and future President of the United States Ronald Reagan appealed to cultural conservative libertarians due its social conservatism and in a 1975 interview with Reason stated I believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism 158 However many libertarians are ambivalent about Reagan s legacy as president due its social conservatism and how the Reagan administration turned the United States big trade deficit into debt making the United States a debtor nation for the first time since World War I 159 160 Ron Paul was affiliated with the libertarian leaning Republican Liberty Caucus 161 and founded the Campaign for Liberty a libertarian leaning membership and lobbying organization 162 Rand Paul is a Senator who continues the tradition of his father Ron Paul albeit more moderately as he has described himself as a constitutional conservative 163 and has both embraced 164 and rejected libertarianism 165 nbsp Former New Mexico Gov Gary Johnson nicknamed Governor Veto ran for head of state within the Libertarian Party in 2012 and 2016Since 2012 former New Mexico Governor and two time Libertarian Party presidential nominee Gary Johnson has been one of the public faces of the libertarian movement The 2016 Libertarian National Convention saw Johnson and Bill Weld nominated as the 2016 presidential ticket and resulted in the most successful result for a third party presidential candidacy since 1996 and the best in the Libertarian Party s history by vote number Johnson received 3 of the popular vote amounting to more than 4 3 million votes 166 Johnson expressed a desire to win at least 5 of the vote so that the Libertarian Party candidates could get equal ballot access and federal funding ending the two party system 167 168 169 While some political commentators have described Senator Rand Paul and Congressman Thomas Massie of Kentucky as Republican libertarians or libertarian leaning 164 170 they prefer to identify as constitutional conservatives 163 165 One federal officeholder openly professing some form of libertarianism is Congressman Justin Amash who represents Michigan s 3rd congressional district since January 2011 171 172 173 174 Initially elected to Congress as a Republican 175 Amash left the party and became an independent in July 2019 176 In April 2020 Amash joined the Libertarian Party and became the first member of the party in the House of Representatives 177 Following the 2022 Libertarian National Convention the Mises Caucus a paleolibertarian faction became the dominant faction on the Libertarian National Committee 178 179 nbsp Only member of the Libertarian Party to win a seat in the United States Congress Michigan Rep Justin AmashA variant of non intellectual right libertarianism that has been described as growing in prominence changing the dynamics of the conservative movement in the U S 180 and even largely defin ing the Republican coalition 181 in the 2020s has been dubbed Barstool conservatism First coined in 2021 182 by journalist Rod Matthew Walther 183 the term describes a movement whose primary base of support is young non religious males 184 185 181 and combines total opposition to political correctness and wokism with the more traditional libertarian opposition to controls on the pursuits of pleasure sex gambling pornography alcohol 184 181 185 Anti capitalist libertarianism has recently aroused renewed interest in the early 21st century The Winter 2006 issue of the Journal of Libertarian Studies published by the Mises Institute was dedicated to reviews of Kevin Carson s Studies in Mutualist Political Economy 186 One variety of this kind of libertarianism has been a resurgent mutualism incorporating modern economic ideas such as marginal utility theory into mutualist theory 187 Carson s Studies in Mutualist Political Economy helped to stimulate the growth of new style mutualism articulating a version of the labor theory of value incorporating ideas drawn from Austrian economics 188 Kremlintarianism edit In 2022 in online libertarian community term kremlintarians kremlintarian emerged as description of individuals claiming libertarian identity and at the same time defending totalitarian regimes and their imperialistic expansion Mainly Russia and China 189 190 191 192 Such tendencies among American movement was already debated online in the early mid 00s 193 Schools of thought editSee also Outline of libertarianism Consequentialist and deontological libertarianism edit There are broadly two ethical viewpoints within libertarianism namely consequentialist libertarianism and deontological libertarianism The first type is based on consequentialism only taking into account the consequences of actions and rules when judging them and holds that free markets and strong property rights have good consequences 194 195 The second type is based on deontological ethics and is the theory that all individuals possess certain natural or moral rights mainly a right of individual sovereignty Acts of initiation of force and fraud are rights violations and that is sufficient reason to oppose those acts 196 Deontological libertarianism is supported by the Libertarian Party In order to become a card carrying member one must sign an oath opposing the initiation of force to achieve political or social goals 197 Prominent consequentialist libertarians include David D Friedman 198 Milton Friedman Friedrich Hayek 199 200 201 Peter Leeson Ludwig von Mises 202 and R W Bradford 203 Prominent deontological libertarians include Hans Hermann Hoppe Ayn Rand and Murray Rothbard 196 In addition to the consequentialist libertarianism as promoted by Hayek Mark Bevir holds that there is also left and right libertarianism 204 Left and right libertarianism edit Left libertarianism and right libertarianism is a categorization used by some political analysts academics and media sources in the United States to contrast related yet distinct approaches to libertarian philosophy 205 206 207 Peter Vallentyne defines right libertarianism as holding that unowned natural resources may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them mixes her labor with them or merely claims them without the consent of others and with little or no payment to them He contrasts this with left libertarianism where such unappropriated natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner 208 Similarly Charlotte and Lawrence Becker maintain that left libertarianism most often refers to the political position that holds natural resources are originally common property while right libertarianism is the political position that considers them to be originally unowned and therefore may be appropriated at will by private parties without the consent of or owing to others 209 Followers of Samuel Edward Konkin III who characterized agorism as a form of left libertarianism 98 99 and strategic branch of left wing market anarchism 97 use the terminology as outlined by Roderick T Long who describes left libertarianism as an integration or I d argue a reintegration of libertarianism with concerns that are traditionally thought of as being concerns of the left That includes concerns for worker empowerment worry about plutocracy concerns about feminism and various kinds of social equality 210 Konkin defined right libertarianism as an activist organization publication or tendency which supports parliamentarianism exclusively as a strategy for reducing or abolishing the state typically opposes Counter Economics either opposes the Libertarian Party or works to drag it right and prefers coalitions with supposedly free market conservatives 97 While holding that the important distinction for libertarians is not left or right but whether they are government apologists who use libertarian rhetoric to defend state aggression Anthony Gregory describes left libertarianism as maintaining interest in personal freedom having sympathy for egalitarianism and opposing social hierarchy preferring a liberal lifestyle opposing big business and having a New Left opposition to imperialism and war Right libertarianism is described as having interest in economic freedom preferring a conservative lifestyle viewing private business as a great victim of the state and favoring a non interventionist foreign policy sharing the Old Right s opposition to empire 211 Although some libertarians such as Walter Block 212 Harry Browne 213 Leonard Read 214 and Murray Rothbard 215 reject the political spectrum especially the left right political spectrum 215 216 whilst denying any association with both the political right and left 217 other libertarians such as Kevin Carson 218 Karl Hess 219 Roderick T Long 220 and Sheldon Richman 221 have written about libertarianism s left wing opposition to authoritarian rule and argued that libertarianism is fundamentally a left wing position 24 222 Rothbard himself previously made the same point rejecting the association of statism with the left 223 Thin and thick libertarianism edit Thin and thick libertarianism are two kinds of libertarianism Thin libertarianism deals with legal issues involving the non aggression principle only and would permit a person to speak against other groups as long as they did not support the initiation of force against others 224 Walter Block is an advocate of thin libertarianism 225 Jeffrey Tucker describes thin libertarianism as brutalism which he compares unfavorably to humanitarianism 226 Thick libertarianism goes further to also cover moral issues Charles W Johnson describes four kinds of thickness namely thickness for application thickness from grounds strategic thickness and thickness from consequences 227 Thick libertarianism is sometimes viewed as more humanitarian than thin libertarianism 228 Wendy McElroy has stated that she would leave the movement if thick libertarianism prevails 229 Stephan Kinsella rejects the dichotomy altogether writing I have never found the thick thin paradigm to be coherent consistent well defined necessary or even useful It s full of straw men or seems to try to take credit for quite obvious and uncontroversial assertions 230 Organizations editAlliance of the Libertarian Left edit The Alliance of the Libertarian Left is a left libertarian organization that includes a multi tendency coalition of agorists geolibertarians green libertarians left Rothbardians minarchists mutualists and voluntaryists 231 Cato Institute edit nbsp Cato Institute building in Washington D C The Cato Institute is a libertarian think tank headquartered in Washington D C It was founded as the Charles Koch Foundation in 1974 by Ed Crane Murray Rothbard and Charles Koch 232 chairman of the board and chief executive officer of the conglomerate Koch Industries the second largest privately held company by revenue in the United States 233 In July 1976 the name was changed to the Cato Institute 232 234 The Cato Institute was established to have a focus on public advocacy media exposure and societal influence 235 According to the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report by the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program of the University of Pennsylvania the Cato Institute is number 16 in the Top Think Tanks Worldwide and number 8 in the Top Think Tanks in the United States 236 The Cato Institute also topped the 2014 list of the budget adjusted ranking of international development think tanks 237 Center for Libertarian Studies edit The Center for Libertarian Studies was a libertarian educational organization founded in 1976 by Murray Rothbard and Burton Blumert which grew out of the Libertarian Scholars Conferences It published the Journal of Libertarian Studies from 1977 to 2000 now published by the Mises Institute a newsletter In Pursuit of Liberty several monographs and sponsors conferences seminars and symposia Originally headquartered in New York it later moved to Burlingame California Until 2007 it supported LewRockwell com web publication of vice president Lew Rockwell It also had previously supported Antiwar com a project of the Randolph Bourne Institute 238 Center for a Stateless Society edit The Center for a Stateless Society is a left libertarian organization and free market anarchist think tank 239 Kevin Carson s Studies in Mutualist Political Economy aims to revive interest in mutualism in an effort to synthesize Austrian economics with the labor theory of value by attempting to incorporate both subjectivism and time preference 240 241 Foundation for Economic Education edit The Foundation for Economic Education is a libertarian think tank dedicated to the economic ethical and legal principles of a free society It publishes books and daily articles as well as hosting seminars and lectures 242 Free State Project edit The Free State Project is an activist libertarian movement formed in 2001 It is working to bring libertarians to the state of New Hampshire to protect and advance liberty As of July 2022 update the project website showed that 19 988 people have pledged to move and 6 232 people identified as Free Staters in New Hampshire 243 Free State Project participants interact with the political landscape in New Hampshire in various ways In 2017 there were 17 Free Staters in the New Hampshire House of Representatives 244 and in 2021 the New Hampshire Liberty Alliance which ranks bills and elected representatives based on their adherence to what they see as libertarian principles scored 150 representatives as A or above rated representatives 245 Participants also engage with other like minded activist groups such as Rebuild New Hampshire 246 Young Americans for Liberty 247 and Americans for Prosperity 248 Libertarian Party edit The Libertarian Party is a political party that promotes civil liberties non interventionism laissez faire capitalism and limiting the size and scope of government The first world such libertarian party it was conceived in August 1971 at meetings in the home of David Nolan in Westminster Colorado 15 in part prompted due to concerns about the Nixon administration the Vietnam War conscription and the introduction of fiat money It was officially formed on December 11 1971 in Colorado Springs Colorado 249 Liberty International edit The Liberty International is a non profit libertarian educational organization based in San Francisco It encourages activism in libertarian and individual rights areas by the freely chosen strategies of its members Its history dates back to 1969 250 as the Society for Individual Liberty founded by Don Ernsberger and Dave Walter 251 The previous name of the Liberty International as the International Society for Individual Liberty 252 was adopted in 1989 after a merger with the Libertarian International was coordinated by Vince Miller who became president of the new organization 253 254 Mises Institute edit nbsp Campus of the Mises Institute in Auburn AlabamaThe Mises Institute is a tax exempt libertarian educative organization located in Auburn Alabama 255 Named after Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises its website states that it exists to promote teaching and research in the Austrian school of economics and individual freedom honest history and international peace in the tradition of Ludwig von Mises and Murray N Rothbard 256 According to the Mises Institute Nobel Prize winner Friedrich Hayek served on their founding board 257 The Mises Institute was founded in 1982 by Lew Rockwell Burton Blumert and Murray Rothbard following a split between the Cato Institute and Rothbard who had been one of the founders of the Cato Institute 258 Additional backing came from Mises s wife Margit von Mises Henry Hazlitt Lawrence Fertig and Nobel Economics laureate Friedrich Hayek 259 Through its publications the Mises Institute promotes libertarian political theories Austrian School economics and a form of heterodox economics known as praxeology the logic of action 260 261 Molinari Institute edit The Molinari Institute is a left libertarian free market anarchist organization directed by philosopher Roderick T Long It is named after Gustave de Molinari whom Long terms the originator of the theory of Market Anarchism 262 Reason Foundation edit The Reason Foundation is a libertarian think tank and non profit and tax exempt organization that was founded in 1978 263 264 It publishes the magazine Reason and is committed to advancing the values of individual freedom and choice limited government and market friendly policies In the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report by the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program of the University of Pennsylvania the Reason Foundation was number 41 out of 60 in the Top Think Tanks in the United States 265 People editIntellectual sources edit Stephen Pearl Andrews individualist anarchist and mutualist Enrico Arrigoni individualist anarchist and member of the Libertarian League Walter Block Austrian School economist in the Rothbardian tradition author of Defending the Undefendable and Yes to Ron Paul and Liberty Murray Bookchin libertarian socialist philosopher and member of the Libertarian League Kevin Carson social theorist mutualist and left libertarian Gary Chartier legal scholar and left libertarian philosopher Roy Childs essayist and critic Joseph Dejacque libertarian communist who first coined the word libertarian in political philosophy and publisher of Libertarian Journal of Social Movement Sam Dolgoff anarcho syndicalist who co founded the Libertarian League Ralph Waldo Emerson individualist philosopher whose Politics essay belies his feelings on government and the state Richard Epstein legal scholar specializing in the field of law and economics David D Friedman anarcho capitalist economist of the Chicago school author of The Machinery of Freedom and son of Milton Friedman Milton Friedman Nobel Prize winning monetarist economist associated with the Chicago school and advocate of economic deregulation and privatization William Batchelder Greene individualist anarchist and mutualist Friedrich Hayek Nobel Prize winning Austrian School economist and classical liberal notable for his political work The Road to Serfdom Robert A Heinlein science fiction author who considered himself to be a libertarian Karl Hess speechwriter and libertarian activist Hans Hermann Hoppe political philosopher and paleolibertarian trained under the Frankfurt School staunch critic of democracy and developer of argumentation ethics John Hospers philosopher and political activist Michael Huemer political philosopher ethical intuitionist and author of The Problem of Political Authority David Kelley Objectivist philosopher open to libertarianism and founder of The Atlas Society Stephan Kinsella deontological anarcho capitalist and opponent of intellectual property Samuel Edward Konkin III author of the New Libertarian Manifesto and proponent of agorism and counter economics Rose Wilder Lane silent editor of her mother s Little House on the Prairie books and author of The Discovery of Freedom Robert LeFevre businessman and primary theorist of autarchism H L Mencken journalist who privately called himself libertarian Ludwig von Mises prominent figure in the Austrian School classical liberal and founder of the a priori economic method of praxeology Jan Narveson political philosopher and opponent of the Lockean proviso Albert Jay Nock author editor of The Freeman and The Nation Georgist and outspoken opponent of the New Deal Robert Nozick multidisciplinary philosopher minarchist critic of utilitarianism and author of Anarchy State and Utopia Isabel Paterson author of The God of the Machine who has been called one of the three founding mothers of libertarianism in the United States Ronald Radosh historian and former Marxist who became a New Left and anti Vietnam War activist Ayn Rand philosophical novelist and founder of Objectivism who accused libertarians of haphazardly plagiarizing her ideas Leonard Read founder of the Foundation for Economic Education Lew Rockwell anarcho capitalist writer purveyor of LewRockwell com and co founder of paleolibertarianism Murray Rothbard Austrian School economist prolific author and polemicist founder of anarcho capitalism and co founder of paleolibertarianism Chris Matthew Sciabarra political theorist and advocate of dialectical libertarianism Thomas Sowell economist social theorist political philosopher and author Lysander Spooner individualist anarchist and mutualist Clarence Lee Swartz individualist anarchist and mutualist Henry David Thoreau author of Civil Disobedience an argument for disobedience to an unjust state Benjamin Tucker individualist anarchist and libertarian socialist Dave Van Ronk folk singer and member of the Libertarian League Laura Ingalls Wilder writer who became dismayed with the New Deal and has been referred to as one of the first libertarians in the United StatesPoliticians edit Justin Amash Representative from Michigan Eric Brakey State Representative from Maine and 2018 Senate candidate Nick Freitas State Delegate from Virginia and 2018 Senate candidate Barry Goldwater former Senator from Arizona and 1964 presidential candidate Glenn Jacobs better known as Kane professional wrestler libertarian Republican and Mayor of Knox County Tennessee since September 2018 Gary Johnson former New Mexico Governor and 2012 and 2016 Libertarian Party presidential nominee Jo Jorgensen Libertarian Party vice presidential nominee in 1996 and 2020 Libertarian Party presidential nominee Mike Lee Senator from Utah Thomas Massie Representative from Kentucky David Nolan founder of the Libertarian Party Rand Paul Senator from Kentucky and 2016 presidential candidate Ron Paul former Representative from Texas and 1988 2008 and 2012 presidential candidate Austin Petersen 2016 Libertarian Party presidential candidate and 2018 Republican Missouri Senate candidatePolitical commentators edit Nick Gillespie Reason contributing editor Scott Horton editorial director of Antiwar com Lisa Kennedy Montgomery host of Kennedy Mary O Grady editor of The Wall Street Journal John Stossel host of Stossel Katherine Timpf Fox News contributor Matt Welch editor in chief of Reason Thomas Woods host of The Tom Woods ShowContentions editPolitical spectrum edit nbsp The Nolan Chart a political spectrum diagram created by libertarian activist David NolanCorey Robin describes libertarianism as fundamentally a conservative ideology united with more traditionalist conservative thought and goals by a desire to retain hierarchies and traditional social relations 266 Others also describe libertarianism as a reactionary ideology for its support of laissez faire capitalism and a major reversal of the modern welfare state 32 In the 1960s Rothbard started the publication Left and Right A Journal of Libertarian Thought believing that the left right political spectrum had gone entirely askew Since conservatives were sometimes more statist than liberals Rothbard tried to reach out to leftists 267 In 1971 Rothbard wrote about his view of libertarianism which he described as supporting free trade property rights and self ownership 215 He would later describe his brand of libertarianism as anarcho capitalism 268 269 270 and paleolibertarianism 271 272 Anthony Gregory points out that within the libertarian movement just as the general concepts left and right are riddled with obfuscation and imprecision left and right libertarianism can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations 211 Some libertarians reject association with either the right or the left Leonard Read wrote an article titled Neither Left Nor Right Libertarians Are Above Authoritarian Degradation 214 Harry Browne wrote We should never define Libertarian positions in terms coined by liberals or conservatives nor as some variant of their positions We are not fiscally conservative and socially liberal We are Libertarians who believe in individual liberty and personal responsibility on all issues at all times 213 Tibor R Machan titled a book of his collected columns Neither Left Nor Right 217 Walter Block s article Libertarianism Is Unique and Belongs Neither to the Right Nor the Left critiques libertarians he described as left C John Baden Randy Holcombe and Roderick T Long and right Edward Feser Hans Hermann Hoppe and Ron Paul Block wrote that these left and right individuals agreed with certain libertarian premises but where we differ is in terms of the logical implications of these founding axioms 212 On the other hand libertarians such as Kevin Carson 218 Karl Hess 219 Roderick T Long 220 and Sheldon Richman 221 consciously label themselves as left libertarians 21 24 Objectivism edit Main article Objectivism See also Objectivism and libertarianism Objectivism is a philosophical system developed by Russian American writer Ayn Rand Rand first expressed Objectivism in her fiction most notably We the Living 1936 The Fountainhead 1943 and Atlas Shrugged 1957 but also in later non fiction essays and books such as The Virtue of Selfishness 1964 and Capitalism The Unknown Ideal 1966 among others 273 Leonard Peikoff a professional philosopher and Rand s designated intellectual heir 274 275 later gave it a more formal structure Rand described Objectivism as the concept of man as a heroic being with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life with productive achievement as his noblest activity and reason as his only absolute 276 Peikoff characterizes Objectivism as a closed system that is not subject to change 277 Objectivism s central tenets are that reality exists independently of consciousness that human beings have direct contact with reality through sense perception that one can attain objective knowledge from perception through the process of concept formation and inductive logic that the proper moral purpose of one s life is the pursuit of one s own happiness that the only social system consistent with this morality is one that displays full respect for individual rights embodied in laissez faire capitalism and that the role of art in human life is to transform humans metaphysical ideas by selective reproduction of reality into a physical form a work of art that one can comprehend and to which one can respond emotionally The Objectivist movement founded by Rand attempts to spread her ideas to the public and in academic settings 278 Objectivism has been and continues to be a major influence on the libertarian movement Many libertarians justify their political views using aspects of Objectivism 279 280 However the views of Rand and her philosophy among prominent libertarians are mixed and many Objectivists are hostile to libertarians in general 281 Nonetheless Objectivists such as David Kelley and his Atlas Society have argued that Objectivism is an open system and are more open to libertarians 282 283 Although academic philosophers have mostly ignored or rejected Rand s philosophy Objectivism has been a significant influence among conservatives and libertarians in the United States 284 285 Analysis reception and criticism editMain article Criticism of libertarianism Criticism of libertarianism includes ethical economic environmental pragmatic and philosophical concerns 286 287 288 194 289 290 including the view that it has no explicit theory of liberty 133 It has been argued that laissez faire capitalism does not necessarily produce the best or most efficient outcome 291 and that its philosophy of individualism as well as policies of deregulation do not prevent the exploitation of natural resources 292 Michael Lind has observed that of the 195 countries in the world today none have fully actualized a society as advocated by libertarians arguing If libertarianism was a good idea wouldn t at least one country have tried it Wouldn t there be at least one country out of nearly two hundred with minimal government free trade open borders decriminalized drugs no welfare state and no public education system 293 Lind has criticized libertarianism for being incompatible with democracy and apologetic towards autocracy 294 In response libertarian Warren Redlich argues that the United States was extremely libertarian from the founding until 1860 and still very libertarian until roughly 1930 295 Nancy MacLean has criticized libertarianism arguing that it is a radical right ideology that has stood against democracy According to MacLean libertarian leaning Charles and David Koch have used anonymous dark money campaign contributions a network of libertarian institutes and lobbying for the appointment of libertarian pro business judges to United States federal and state courts to oppose taxes public education employee protection laws environmental protection laws and the New Deal Social Security program 296 Left wing edit Libertarianism has been criticized by the political left for being pro business and anti labor 297 for desiring to repeal government subsidies to disabled people and the poor 298 and being incapable of addressing environmental issues therefore contributing to the failure to slow global climate change 299 Left libertarians such as Noam Chomsky have characterized libertarian ideologies as being akin to corporate fascism because they aim to remove all public controls from the economy leaving it solely in the hands of private corporations Chomsky has also argued that the more radical forms of libertarianism such as anarcho capitalism are entirely theoretical and could never function in reality due to business reliance on the state as well as infrastructure and publicly funded subsidies 300 Another criticism is based on the libertarian theory that a distinction can be made between positive and negative rights according to which negative liberty negative rights should be recognized as legitimate but positive liberty positive rights should be rejected 301 Socialists also have a different view and definition of liberty with some arguing that the capitalist mode of production necessarily relies on and reproduces violations of the liberty of members of the working class by the capitalist class such as through exploitation of labor and through alienation from the product of one s labor 302 303 304 305 306 Anarchist critics such as Brian Morris have expressed skepticism regarding libertarians sincerity in supporting a limited or minimal state or even no state at all arguing that anarcho capitalism does not abolish the state and that anarcho capitalists simply replaced the state with private security firms and can hardly be described as anarchists as the term is normally understood 307 Peter Sabatini has noted Within Libertarianism Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state However Rothbard s claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state In its place he allows countless private states with each person supplying their own police force army and law or else purchasing these services from capitalist vendors Rothbard sees nothing at all wrong with the amassing of wealth therefore those with more capital will inevitably have greater coercive force at their disposal just as they do now 308 For Bob Black libertarians are conservatives and anarcho capitalists want to abolish the state to his own satisfaction by calling it something else Black argues that anarcho capitalists do not denounce what the state does and only object to who s doing it 309 Similarly Paul Birch has argued that anarcho capitalism would dissolve into a society of city states 310 Other libertarians have criticized what they term propertarianism 311 with Ursula K Le Guin contrasting in The Dispossessed 1974 a propertarian society with one that does not recognize private property rights 312 in an attempt to show that property objectified human beings 313 314 Left libertarians such as Murray Bookchin objected to propertarians calling themselves libertarians 25 Bookchin described three concepts of possession namely property itself possession and usufruct i e appropriation of resources by virtue of use 315 Right wing edit From the political right traditionalist conservative philosopher Russell Kirk criticized libertarianism by quoting T S Eliot s expression chirping sectaries to describe them Kirk had questioned the fusionism between libertarian and traditionalist conservatives that marked much of the post war conservatism in the United States 316 Kirk stated that although conservatives and libertarians share opposition to collectivism the totalist state and bureaucracy they have otherwise nothing in common 317 and called the libertarian movement an ideological clique forever splitting into sects still smaller and odder but rarely conjugating Believing that a line of division exists between believers in some sort of transcendent moral order and utilitarians admitting no transcendent sanctions for conduct he included the libertarians in the latter category 318 319 He also berated libertarians for holding up capitalism as an absolute good arguing that economic self interest was inadequate to hold an economic system together and that it was even less adequate to preserve order 317 Kirk believed that by glorifying the individual the free market and the dog eat dog struggle for material success libertarianism weakened community promoted materialism and undermined appreciation of tradition love learning and aesthetics all of which in his view were essential components of true community 317 Author and professor Carl Bogus states that there were fundamental differences between libertarians and traditionalist conservatives in the United States as libertarians wanted the market to be unregulated as possible while traditionalist conservatives believed that big business if unconstrained could impoverish national life and threaten freedom 320 Libertarians also considered that a strong state would threaten freedom while traditionalist conservatives regarded a strong state one which is properly constructed to ensure that not too much power accumulated in any one branch was necessary to ensure freedom 320 See also edit nbsp Libertarianism portalAmerican Left Anarchism in the United States Libertarianism in South Africa Libertarianism in the United Kingdom List of libertarian organizations List of libertarians in the United States Progressivism in the United States Socialism in the United StatesReferences edit Long Roderick T 1998 Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class Social Philosophy and Policy 15 2 303 349 online Part 1 Part 2 Becker Lawrence C Becker Charlotte B 2001 Encyclopedia of Ethics P W 3 Taylor amp Francis p 1562 Paul Ellen F 2007 Liberalism Old and New Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 187 Christiano Thomas John P Christman 2009 Contemporary Debates in Political Philosophy Individualism and Libertarian Rights Malden Massachusetts Wiley Blackwell p 121 Archived June 12 2020 at the Wayback Machine Vallentyne Peter March 3 2009 Libertarianism In Zalta Edward N ed Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Spring 2009 ed Stanford California Stanford University Retrieved March 5 2010 Bevir Mark 2010 Encyclopedia of Political Theory Thousand Oaks California Sage Publications Cato Institute p 811 Boaz David Kirby David October 18 2006 The Libertarian Vote Cato Institute Carpenter Ted Galen Innocent Malen 2008 Foreign Policy In Hamowy Ronald ed The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism Thousand Oaks California Sage Publications Cato Institute pp 177 180 doi 10 4135 9781412965811 n109 ISBN 978 1 4129 6580 4 LCCN 2008009151 OCLC 750831024 Olsen Edward A 2002 US National Defense for the Twenty First Century The Grand Exit Strategy Taylor amp Francis p 182 ISBN 978 0714681405 a b Adams Ian 2001 Political Ideology Today reprinted revised ed Manchester Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0719060205 a b c Russell Dean May 1955 Who Is A Libertarian The Freeman Foundation for Economic Education 5 5 Archived from the original on June 26 2010 Retrieved March 6 2010 a b DeLeon David 1978 The American as Anarchist Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism Johns Hopkins University Press p 127 ISBN 978 0 8018 2126 4 O nly a few individuals like Murray Rothbard in Power and Market and some article writers were influenced by past anarchists like Spooner and Tucker Most had not evolved consciously from this tradition they had been a rather automatic product of the American environment a b Rothbard Murray 1965 2000 The Spooner Tucker Doctrine An Economist s View Journal of Libertarian Studies 20 1 7 Van der Vossen Bas January 28 2019 Libertarianism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved August 23 2020 a b Martin Douglas November 22 2010 David Nolan 66 Is Dead Started Libertarian Party New York Times Retrieved November 17 2019 a b Caldwell Christopher July 22 2007 The Antiwar Anti Abortion Anti Drug Enforcement Administration Anti Medicare Candidacy of Dr Ron Paul The New York Times Archived from the original on September 22 2012 Retrieved September 22 2012 a b c Goodway David 2006 Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow Left Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward Liverpool Liverpool University Press p 4 Libertarian and libertarianism are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for anarchist and anarchism largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of anarchy and its derivatives The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho capitalism minimal statism and an extreme right wing laissez faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words libertarian and libertarianism It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition Marshall Peter 2008 Demanding the Impossible A History of Anarchism London Harper Perennial p 565 The problem with the term libertarian is that it is now also used by the Right In its moderate form right libertarianism embraces laissez faire liberals like Robert Nozick who call for a minimal State and in its extreme form anarcho capitalists like Murray Rothbard and David Friedman who entirely repudiate the role of the State and look to the market as a means of ensuring social order a b Schaefer David Lewis April 30 2008 Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia Archived August 21 2014 at the Wayback Machine The New York Sun Retrieved June 26 2019 a b Carlson Jennifer D 2012 Libertarianism In Miller Wilburn R ed The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America London Sage Publications p 1006 ISBN 1412988764 a b c Long Riderick T Anarchism In Gaus Gerald F D Agostino Fred eds 2012 The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy p 227 Kymlicka Will 2005 libertarianism left In Honderich Ted The Oxford Companion to Philosophy New York City Oxford University Press p 516 ISBN 978 0199264797 Left libertarianism is a new term for an old conception of justice dating back to Grotius It combines the libertarian assumption that each person possesses a natural right of self ownership over his person with the egalitarian premise that natural resources should be shared equally Right wing libertarians argue that the right of self ownership entails the right to appropriate unequal parts of the external world such as unequal amounts of land According to left libertarians however the world s natural resources were initially unowned or belonged equally to all and it is illegitimate for anyone to claim exclusive private ownership of these resources to the detriment of others Such private appropriation is legitimate only if everyone can appropriate an equal amount or if those who appropriate more are taxed to compensate those who are thereby excluded from what was once common property Historic proponents of this view include Thomas Paine Herbert Spencer and Henry George Recent exponents include Philippe Van Parijs and Hillel Steiner a b Chartier Gary Johnson Charles W 2011 Markets Not Capitalism Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses Inequality Corporate Power and Structural Poverty Brooklyn Minor Compositions Autonomedia pp 1 16 a b c d Sheldon Richman February 3 2011 Libertarian Left Free market anti capitalism the unknown ideal The American Conservative Archived June 10 2019 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved November 18 2019 a b c Bookchin Murray January 1986 The Greening of Politics Toward a New Kind of Political Practice Green Perspectives Newsletter of the Green Program Project 1 We have permitted cynical political reactionaries and the spokesmen of large corporations to pre empt these basic libertarian American ideals We have permitted them not only to become the specious voice of these ideals such that individualism has been used to justify egotism the pursuit of happiness to justify greed and even our emphasis on local and regional autonomy has been used to justify parochialism insularism and exclusivity often against ethnic minorities and so called deviant individuals We have even permitted these reactionaries to stake out a claim to the word libertarian a word in fact that was literally devised in the 1890s in France by Elisee Reclus as a substitute for the word anarchist which the government had rendered an illegal expression for identifying one s views The propertarians in effect acolytes of Ayn Rand the earth mother of greed egotism and the virtues of property have appropriated expressions and traditions that should have been expressed by radicals but were willfully neglected because of the lure of European and Asian traditions of socialism socialisms that are now entering into decline in the very countries in which they originated a b c d e f g The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective December 11 2008 150 years of Libertarian Anarchist Writers The Anarchist Library Retrieved January 31 2020 a b c d e f g The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective May 17 2017 160 years of Libertarian Anarchist Writers Anarchist FAQ Retrieved January 31 2020 a b c d e f g h i Marshall Peter 2009 Demanding the Impossible A History of Anarchism p 641 The word libertarian has long been associated with anarchism and has been used repeatedly throughout this work The term originally denoted a person who upheld the doctrine of the freedom of the will in this sense Godwin was not a libertarian but a necessitarian It came however to be applied to anyone who approved of liberty in general In anarchist circles it was first used by Joseph Dejacque as the title of his anarchist journal Le Libertaire Journal du Mouvement Social published in New York in 1858 At the end of the last century the anarchist Sebastien Faure took up the word to stress the difference between anarchists and authoritarian socialists a b Goodman John C December 20 2005 What Is Classical Liberalism National Center for Policy Analysis Retrieved June 26 2019 Archived March 9 2009 at the Wayback Machine a b Boaz David 1998 Libertarianism A Primer Free Press pp 22 26 a b Conway David 2008 Freedom of Speech In Hamowy Ronald ed Liberalism Classical The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism Thousand Oaks California Sage Cato Institute pp 295 298 quote at p 296 doi 10 4135 9781412965811 n112 ISBN 978 1 4129 6580 4 LCCN 2008009151 OCLC 750831024 Depending on the context libertarianism can be seen as either the contemporary name for classical liberalism adopted to avoid confusion in those countries where liberalism is widely understood to denote advocacy of expansive government powers or as a more radical version of classical liberalism a b Baradat Leon P 2015 Political Ideologies Routledge p 31 ISBN 978 1317345558 a b Gallup Poll news release September 7 10 2006 Kiley Jocelyn August 25 2014 In Search of Libertarians Pew Research Center 14 say the term libertarian describes them well 77 of those know the definition 11 of total while 23 do not 3 of total Adams Sean Morioka Noreen Stone Terry Lee 2006 Color Design Workbook A Real World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design Gloucester Massachusetts Rockport Publishers pp 86 ISBN 159253192X OCLC 60393965 Kumar Rohit Vishal Joshi Radhika October December 2006 Colour Colour Everywhere In Marketing Too SCMS Journal of Indian Management 3 4 40 46 ISSN 0973 3167 SSRN 969272 Tea Party Adopts Don t Tread On Me Flag NPR March 25 2010 Retrieved June 26 2019 Walker Rob October 2 2016 The Shifting Symbolism of the Gadsden Flag The New Yorker Retrieved June 26 2019 Parkos Jack May 2 2018 History of the Gadsden Flag 71Republic Archived from the original on February 13 2020 Retrieved June 26 2019 Rothbard Murray 2009 1970s The Betrayal of the American Right PDF Mises Institute ISBN 978 1610165013 Archived from the original PDF on July 3 2015 Retrieved April 17 2016 One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that for the first time in my memory we our side had captured a crucial word from the enemy Libertarians had long been simply a polite word for left wing anarchists that is for anti private property anarchists either of the communist or syndicalist variety But now we had taken it over a b c Nettlau Max 1996 A Short History of Anarchism London Freedom Press p 162 ISBN 978 0 900384 89 9 OCLC 37529250 a b c Fernandez Frank 2001 Cuban Anarchism The History of a Movement Sharp Press p 9 Thus in the United States the once exceedingly useful term libertarian has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word a b c The Week Online Interviews Chomsky Z Magazine February 23 2002 The term libertarian as used in the US means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world Historically the libertarian movement has been the anti statist wing of the socialist movement In the US which is a society much more dominated by business the term has a different meaning It means eliminating or reducing state controls mainly controls over private tyrannies Libertarians in the US don t say let s get rid of corporations It is a sort of ultra rightism a b c Ward Colin 2004 Anarchism A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press p 62 For a century anarchists have used the word libertarian as a synonym for anarchist both as a noun and an adjective The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896 However much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free market philosophers a b c d Robert Graham ed 2005 Anarchism A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas Vol One From Anarchy to Anarchism 300 CE 1939 Montreal Black Rose Books 17 Libertarian Party 2010 Platform Libertarian Party May 2010 p 1 Retrieved September 24 2010 Watts Duncan 2006 Understanding American government and politics a guide for A2 politics students 2nd Revised ed Manchester University Press p 246 ISBN 978 0 7190 7327 4 Cohn Jesse April 20 2009 Anarchism In Ness Immanuel ed The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest Oxford John Wiley amp Sons Ltd p 6 doi 10 1002 9781405198073 wbierp0039 ISBN 978 1 4051 9807 3 L ibertarianism a term that until the mid twentieth century was synonymous with anarchism per se Guerin Daniel 1970 Anarchism From Theory to Practice New York City Monthly Review Press p 12 A narchism is really a synonym for socialism The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State ISBN 978 0853451754 a b Gamble Andrew August 2013 Freeden Michael Stears Marc eds Economic Libertarianism The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies Oxford University Press 405 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780199585977 013 0008 a b Gamble Andrew August 2013 Freeden Michael Stears Marc eds Economic Libertarianism The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies Oxford University Press 406 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780199585977 013 0008 Gamble Andrew August 2013 Freeden Michael Stears Marc eds Economic Libertarianism The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies Oxford University Press 405 406 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780199585977 013 0008 Francis Mark December 1983 Human Rights and Libertarians Australian Journal of Politics amp History 29 3 462 doi 10 1111 j 1467 8497 1983 tb00212 x ISSN 0004 9522 Francis Mark December 1983 Human Rights and Libertarians Australian Journal of Politics amp History 29 3 462 463 doi 10 1111 j 1467 8497 1983 tb00212 x ISSN 0004 9522 Freeman S July 2018 Illiberal Libertarians Why Libertarianism Is Not a Liberal View Oxford Academic Pages 62 104 https doi org 10 1093 oso 9780190699260 003 0003 Accessed 22 April 2023 Garbooshian Adrina Michelle 2006 The Concept of Human Dignity in the French and American Enlightenments Religion Virtue Liberty ProQuest p 472 dead link ISBN 978 0542851605 Influenced by Locke and Smith certain segments of society affirmed classical liberalism with a libertarian bent Cantor Paul A 2012 The Invisible Hand in Popular Culture Liberty Vs Authority in American Film and TV University Press of Kentucky p xiii ISBN 978 0813140827 T he roots of libertarianism lie in the classical liberal tradition Rocker Rudolf 1949 Pioneers of American Freedom Origin of Liberal and Radical Thought in America New York J J Little amp Ives Company p 13 It was the great service of liberal thinkers like Jefferson and Paine that they recognized the natural limitations of every form of government That is why they did not want to see the state become a terrestrial Providence which in its infallibility would make on its own every decision thereby not only blocking the road to higher forms of social development but also crippling the natural sense of responsibility of the people which is the essential condition for every prosperous society Tucker Benjamin 1926 1976 Individual Liberty New York Vanguard Press p 13 The Anarchists are simply unterrified Jeffersonian Democrats They believe that the best government is that which governs least and that that which governs least is no government at all Scott James C 2012 Two Cheers for Anarchism Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy Dignity and Meaningful Work and Play Princeton University Press pp 79 80 At one end of an institutional continuum one can place the total institutions that routinely destroy the autonomy and initiative of their subjects At the other end of this continuum lies perhaps some ideal version of Jeffersonian democracy composed of independent self reliant self respecting landowning farmers managers of their own small enterprises answerable to themselves free of debt and more generally with no institutional reason for servility or deference Such free standing farmers Jefferson thought were the basis of a vigorous and independent public sphere where citizens could speak their mind without fear or favor Somewhere in between these two poles lies the contemporary situation of most citizens of Western democracies a relatively open public sphere but a quotidian institutional experience that is largely at cross purposes with the implicit assumptions behind this public sphere and encouraging and often rewarding caution deference servility and conformity Long Roderick T 1998 Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class Social Philosophy and Policy 15 2 310 doi 10 1017 s0265052500002028 S2CID 145150666 a b Rothbard Murray 1973 2006 The Libertarian Heritage The American Revolution and Classical Liberalism Archived 18 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine In For a New Liberty The Libertarian Manifesto LewRockwell com Retrieved 10 December 2019 Boaz David January 30 2009 Libertarianism Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on May 4 2015 Retrieved February 21 2017 a b Sprading Charles T 1913 1995 Liberty and the Great Libertarians Mises Institute p 74 ISBN 978 1610161077 Hoffman David C Fall 2006 Paine and Prejudice Rhetorical Leadership through Perceptual Framing in Common Sense Rhetoric and Public Affairs 9 3 373 410 Maier Pauline 1997 American Scripture Making the Declaration of Independence New York City Knopf pp 90 91 Hitchens Christopher 2006 Thomas Paine s Rights of Man Grove Press p 37 ISBN 0802143830 Lamb Robert 2010 Liberty Equality and the Boundaries of Ownership Thomas Paine s Theory of Property Rights Review of Politics 72 3 483 511 doi 10 1017 s0034670510000331 hdl 10871 9896 S2CID 55413082 Tucker Benjamin 1888 State Socialism and Anarchism How Far They Agree And Wherein They Differ Tucker Benjamin 1926 Individual Liberty An Anarchist FAQ 2009 Benjamin Tucker Capitalist or Anarchist Archived February 13 2020 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved July 5 2019 An Anarchist FAQ 2009 Lysander Spooner right libertarian or libertarian socialist Archived February 13 2020 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved July 5 2019 Rocker Rudolf 1949 Pioneers of American Freedom New York J J Little and Ives Co Woodcock George 1962 Anarchism A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements Melbourne Penguin Seligman Edwin Robert Anderson Johnson Alvin Saunders eds 1937 Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences p 12 Gross David ed 2007 The Price of Freedom Political Philosophy from Thoreau s Journals p 8 The Thoreau of these journals distrusted doctrine and though it is accurate I think to call him an anarchist he was by no means doctrinaire in this either ISBN 978 1 4348 0552 2 Thoreau Henry David 1849 Resistance to Civil Government In Civil Disobedience I heartily accept the motto That government is best which governs least and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically Carried out it finally amounts to this which also I believe That government is best which governs not at all and when men are prepared for it that will be the kind of government which they will have Retrieved November 15 2019 Emerson Ralph Waldo 1844 Politics In Essays Second Series Spooner Lysander 1867 1870 No Treason The Constitution of No Authority Dejacque Joseph 1857 De l etre humain male et femelle Lettre a P J Proudhon in French Mouton Jean Claude Le Libertaire Journal du mouvement social in French Retrieved July 18 2019 Woodcock George 1962 Anarchism A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements Meridian Books p 280 He called himself a social poet and published two volumes of heavily didactic verse Lazareennes and Les Pyrenees Nivelees In New York from 1858 to 1861 he edited an anarchist paper entitled Le Libertaire Journal du Mouvement Social in whose pages he printed as a serial his vision of the anarchist Utopia entitled L Humanisphere Comegna Anthony Gomez Camillo October 3 2018 Libertarianism Then and Now Libertarianism Cato Institute Benjamin Tucker was the first American to really start using the term libertarian as a self identifier somewhere in the late 1870s or early 1880s Retrieved March 19 2020 Avrich Paul 1995 2006 Anarchist Voices An Oral History of Anarchism in America Edinburgh Scotland Oakland West Virginia AK Press p 6 ISBN 978 1904859277 a b Avrich Paul 2005 Anarchist Voices An Oral History of Anarchism in America AK Press p 486 Libertarian League 1963 What We Stand For Avrich Paul 2005 Anarchist Voices An Oral History of Anarchism in America AK Press p 471 472 Weinberg Bill January 19 2012 The Left Libertarians the last of an ancient breed The Villager Raimond Justin 2001 An Enemy of the State The Life of Murray N Rothbard Amherst Prometheus Rothbard Murray Radosh Ronald eds 1972 A New History of Leviathan Essays on the Rise of the American Corporate State New York Dutton Hess Karl 1975 Dear America New York Morrow Raimond Justin 2001 An Enemy of the State The Life of Murray N Rothbard Amherst Prometheus pp 151 209 Doherty Brian 2007 Radicals for Capitalism A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement New York Public Affairs p 338 On partnerships between the state and big business and the role of big business in promoting regulation see Kolko Gabriel 1977 The Triumph of Conservatism A Reinterpretation of American History 1900 1916 New York Free Shaffer Butler 2008 In Restraint of Trade The Business Campaign Against Competition 1918 1938 Auburn Mises Institute Rothbard Murray June 15 1969 Confiscation and the Homestead Principle Libertarian Forum 1 6 3 4 Counter Economics what it is how it works PDF Agorism eu org Archived from the original PDF on April 27 2022 a b c Konkin III Samuel Edward 1983 New Libertarian Manifesto Agorism eu org Archived April 27 2022 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved May 4 2022 a b Smashing the State for Fun and Profit Since 1969 An Interview With the Libertarian Icon Samuel Edward Konkin III a k a SEK3 Spaz org Retrieved March 15 2020 a b D Amato David S November 27 2018 Black Market Activism Samuel Edward Konkin III and Agorism Libertarianism org Retrieved November 21 2019 a b Burns Jennifer 2009 Goddess of the Market Ayn Rand and the American Right New York Oxford University Press p 306 ISBN 978 0 19 532487 7 a b Mencken H L 1961 Letters of H L Mencken Knofp p xiii and 189 a b Nock Albert Jay 1949 Letters from Albert Jay Nock 1924 1945 to Edmund C Evans Mrs Edmund C Evans and Ellen Winsor Caxton Printers p 40 Mencken H L 1923 Autobiographical Notes 1941 Letter to George Muller as quoted by Marion Elizabeth Rodgers in Mencken The American Iconoclast 2005 Oxford University Press p 105 Eastman Max What to Call Yourself The Freeman Foundation for Economic Education 3 24 Retrieved April 7 2020 Cantor Paul 2012 The Invisible Hand in Popular Culture Liberty Vs Authority in American Film and TV University Press of Kentucky 2 p 353 Rubin Harriet September 15 2007 Ayn Rand s Literature of Capitalism The New York Times Retrieved June 26 2019 Rand Ayn September 1971 Brief Summary The Objectivist 10 More specifically I disapprove of disagree with and have no connection with the latest aberration of some conservatives the so called hippies of the right who attempt to snare the younger or more careless ones of my readers by claiming simultaneously to be followers of my philosophy and advocates of anarchism Rand Ayn 1981 The Age of Mediocrity FHF 81 In Mayhew Robert 2005 Ayn Rand Answers The Best of Her Q amp A L ibertarians are a monstrous disgusting bunch of people they plagiarize my ideas when that fits their purpose and denounce me in a more vicious manner than any communist publication when that fits their purpose Walker Jesse June 13 2011 John Hospers RIP Reason Retrieved July 13 2013 O Grady Jane July 13 2011 John Hospers obituary The Guardian Retrieved July 13 2019 Doherty Brian 2009 The Three Furies of Libertarianism Radicals for Capitalism A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement London Hachette UK ISBN 978 0786731886 Henry J Silverman American radical thought the libertarian tradition p 279 1970 Heath publishing Robert Poole In memoriam Barry Goldwater Obituary Archived May 25 2012 at archive today Reason August September 1998 Hess Karl The Death of Politics Archived August 2 2019 at the Wayback Machine Interview in Playboy July 1976 Murray Rothbard The Early 1960s From Right to Left Archived February 2 2010 at the Wayback Machine excerpt from chapter 13 of Murray Rothbard The Betrayal of the American Right Ludwig von Mises Institute 2007 Ronald Lora William Henry Longton Conservative press in 20th century America pp 367 374 Greenwood Publishing Group 1999 Marc Jason Gilbert The Vietnam War on campus other voices more distant drums p 35 2001 Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 0 275 96909 6 Rebecca E Klatch A Generation Divided The New Left the New Right and the 1960s University of California Press 1999 pp 215 237 Jude Blanchette What Libertarians and Conservatives Say About Each Other An Annotated Bibliography LewRockwell com October 27 2004 Bill Winter 1971 2001 The Libertarian Party s 30th Anniversary Year Remembering the first three decades of America s Party of Principle LP News International Society for Individual Liberty Freedom Network list Archived July 16 2011 at the Wayback Machine National Book Award 1975 Philosophy and Religion 1975 National Book Foundation Retrieved September 9 2011 Archived September 9 2011 at the Wayback Machine The Advocates Robert Nozick page Archived April 24 2010 at the Wayback Machine Robinson Emily et al 2017 Telling stories about post war Britain popular individualism and the crisis of the 1970s Twentieth Century British History 28 2 268 304 Heppell Timothy June 2002 The ideological composition of the Parliamentary Conservative Party 1992 97 British Journal of Politics and International Relations 4 2 299 324 doi 10 1111 1467 856X t01 1 00006 S2CID 144304577 Walsh Jason April 7 2006 Libertarianism limited The Guardian London Retrieved February 26 2008 Teles Steven Kenney Daniel A Spreading the Word The diffusion of American Conservatism in Europe and beyond pp 136 169 In Steinmo Sven 2008 Growing Apart America and Europe in the Twenty first Century Cambridge University Press National Questions June 30 1997 National Review 49 12 pp 16 17 Steven Teles and Daniel A Kenney chapter Spreading the Word The diffusion of American Conservatism in Europe and beyond pp 136 169 in Growing apart America and Europe in the twenty first century by Sven Steinmo Cambridge University Press 2008 The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas ISBN missing Gregory Anthony April 24 2007 Real World Politics and Radical Libertarianism LewRockwell com Archived June 18 2015 at the Wayback Machine Boaz David November 21 1998 Preface for the Japanese Edition of Libertarianism A Primer Reprinted at Cato org Silber Kenneth February 4 2007 Radicals for Capitalism Book Review The New York Post Archived December 8 2008 at the Wayback Machine a b Lester J C October 22 2017 New Paradigm Libertarianism a Very Brief Explanation PhilPapers Retrieved June 26 2019 Klausner Manuel July 1975 Inside Ronald Reagan Reason Retrieved May 2 2020 a b Roberts Jerry September 17 1988 Libertarian Candidate Rolls Out His Values San Francisco Chronicle a b c Nichols Bruce March 15 1987 Ron Paul Wants to Get Americans Thinking Republican Turned Libertarian Seeks Presidency Dallas Morning News a b Kennedy J Michael May 10 1988 Politics 88 Hopeless Presidential Race Libertarian Plods On Alone and Unheard Los Angeles Times Retrieved January 31 2012 a b c Kutzmann David M May 24 1988 Small Party Battles Big Government Libertarian Candidate Opposes Intrusion into Private Lives San Jose Mercury News 12A Friedersdorf Conor May 7 2012 Comparing Gary Johnson to Past Libertarian Party Nominees The Atlantic Retrieved October 7 2020 Rothbard Murray 1984 The Reagan Phenomenon Free Life The Journal of the Libertarian Alliance Libertarian Alliance 4 1 1 7 Retrieved September 20 2020 via the Mises Institute Riggenbach Jeff February 5 2011 The Reagan Fraud and After Mises Institute Retrieved September 20 2020 Kilborn Peter T September 17 1985 U S Turns Into Debtor Nation The New York Times Retrieved May 2 2020 Johnston Oswald September 17 1985 Big Trade Deficit Turns U S Into Debtor Nation First Time Since 1914 Los Angeles Times Retrieved May 2 2020 Weltch Matt September 9 2011 Rothbard on Reagan in Reason Reason Reason Foundation Retrieved September 20 2020 Kevin D Williamson April 2 2018 The Passing of the Libertarian Moment The Atlantic Retrieved April 16 2018 Schneider Mayerson Matthew 2015 Peak Oil Apocalyptic Environmentalism and Libertarian Political Culture Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0226285436 a b The Libertarian Vote by David Boaz and David Kirby Cato Institute October 18 2006 The ANES Guide to Public Opinion and Electoral Behavior 1948 2004 American National Election Studies Newer edition Archived April 23 2016 at the Wayback Machine Beyond Liberal and Conservative William S Maddox amp Stuart A Lilie 1984 Preview on Google Books The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History p 197 Adam Rothman 2009 Tea Party Movement Gathers Strength by Peter Wallsten and Danny Yadron The Wall Street Journal September 29 2010 Is Half the Tea Party Libertarian Reason Emily Ekins September 26 2011 Sutherland J J October 5 2010 New Poll Tea Party Overwhelmingly Christian And Socially Conservative NPR National Public Radio Retrieved October 15 2013 On Social Issues Tea Partiers Are Not Libertarians The Atlantic October 6 2010 Retrieved October 15 2013 Is Half the Tea Party Libertarian Reason September 26 2011 Retrieved October 15 2013 Molly Ball May 10 2016 The New Republican Civil War The Atlantic Retrieved February 11 2017 Katie Couric interviews Tea Party Leaders CBS News January 25 2010 Inside Ronald Reagan A Reason Interview Reason July 1975 Retrieved February 11 2010 Kilborn Peter T September 17 1985 U S Turns Into Debtor Nation The New York times Retrieved July 6 2019 Big Trade Deficit Turns U S Into Debtor Nation First Time Since 1914 Los Angeles times September 17 1985 Retrieved July 6 2019 Republican Liberty Caucus endorses Ron Paul Archived June 9 2012 at the Wayback Machine Republican Liberty Caucus December 30 2011 Retrieved December 30 2011 Ambinder Marc June 13 2008 Ron Paul s Goal 100 000 By September The Atlantic Retrieved July 5 2019 a b Solomon Deborah March 29 2010 Questions for Rand Paul Tea Time Interview The New York Times Retrieved October 23 2010 a b Stewart Martina May 4 2010 I m very serious about running Ron Paul s son says CNN Archived from the original on November 28 2021 Retrieved November 15 2010 Like his father the son also favors notions of limited government Libertarian would be a good description Rand Paul told CNN because libertarians believe in freedom in all aspects of your life your economic life as well as your social life as well as your personal life a b Newton Small Jay March 17 2010 Is Rand Paul Good or Bad for Republicans Time Retrieved March 30 2014 They thought all along that they could call me a libertarian and hang that label around my neck like an albatross but I m not a libertarian Official 2016 Presidential General Election Results PDF Federal Election Commission December 2017 Retrieved February 12 2018 Karoun Demirjian October 5 2012 Libertarian candidate makes push for Nevada s Ron Paul supporters Las Vegas Sun Retrieved November 2 2012 Lucas Eaves November 1 2012 Why 5 matters to Gary Johnson Independent Voter Network Archived from the original on June 18 2013 Retrieved November 6 2012 William Maxwell Ernest Crain Adolfo Santos 2013 Texas Politics Today 2013 2014 Edition p 121 Curry Tom Libertarian GOP Member Sees Drone Privacy Risk Rollcall com Archived from the original on February 14 2015 Retrieved February 14 2015 Andrews Wilson Bloch Matthew Park Haeyoun March 24 2017 Who Stopped the Republican Health Bill The New York Times 15 were hard line conservatives who wanted a complete repeal of the Affordable Care Act They are all members of the House Freedom Caucus who are among the most conservative members of the House Justin Amash MI 3 Desiderio Andrew May 18 2019 Michigan GOP congressman says Trump s conduct impeachable Politico Retrieved May 18 2019 Phillips Amber Phillips May 20 2019 Why Justin Amash s impeachment comments probably won t change Nancy Pelosi s mind The Washington Post Retrieved May 20 2019 Amash is one of the most conservative lawmakers in Congress which gives him street cred when he calls for impeaching a Republican president But Amash is also a different strain of conservative he leans libertarian Sabad Rebecca May 20 2019 Amash s impeachment call comes with a political price How high NBC News Retrieved May 20 2019 Amash 39 who identifies as a libertarian Republican is considered among the most conservative members of the House Conservative groups like the Club for Growth Heritage Action for America and Americans for Prosperity have awarded him lifetime ratings of more than 85 percent Friedersdorf Conor May 24 2019 The Justin Amash Test The Atlantic Retrieved July 12 2019 Paxson Heidi July 4 2019 Rep Justin Amash declares his independence from the Republican Party NBC 25 News Retrieved July 12 2019 Welch Matt April 29 2020 Justin Amash Becomes the First Libertarian Member of Congress Reason Reason Foundation Retrieved May 12 2020 Doherty Brian May 29 2022 Mises Caucus Takes Control of Libertarian Party Reason Retrieved June 7 2022 Mas Frederic June 1 2022 United States the libertarian party veers to the right Contrepoints in French Retrieved June 7 2022 Schnurr Benjamin November 3 2022 The growing prominence of Barstool conservatism Massachusetts Daily Collegian Retrieved August 10 2023 a b c Robertson Derek June 20 2021 How Republicans Became the Barstool Party Politico Retrieved August 10 2023 Walther Matthew February 1 2021 Rise of the Barstool conservatives The Week Retrieved August 10 2023 Cecchini Evan September 16 2022 Where Barstool Conservatism Belongs in the Republican Party W amp L Speculator Retrieved August 14 2023 a b Hochman Nate June 1 2022 What Comes After the Religious Right The New York Times Retrieved August 10 2023 a b McGrew Bethel June 29 2022 The Problem with Barstool Conservatives National Review Retrieved August 10 2023 Carson Kevin Winter 2006 Carson s Rejoinders Journal of Libertarian Studies Mises Institute 20 1 97 136 Retrieved February 1 2020 Carson Kevin Preface Mutualist Org Free Market Anti Capitalism Archived April 15 2011 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved February 1 2020 Carson Kevin 2007 Studies in Mutualist Political Economy Charleston South Carolina BookSurge Kremlintarians Russia s war on Ukraine exposes great libertarian divide October 19 2022 The Kremlintarian tendency of American libertarians May 6 2023 Why Freedom Lovers Support Authoritarian Regimes Corruption is the Key May 29 2023 Urban Dictionary Kremlintarian Urban Dictionary Something is Rotting at the Periphery of the Libertarian Movement December 11 2004 a b Wolff Jonathan Libertarianism Utility and Economic Competition PDF Virginia Law Review 92 1605 1623 Archived from the original PDF on January 12 2013 Zwolinski Matt Libertarianism Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved August 23 2008 a b Bradford R W 1998 The Two Libertarianisms Liberty Yeager Leland B 2001 Ethics As Social Science The Moral Philosophy of Social Cooperation Edward Elgar Publishing p 283 Friedman David D 1973 The Machinery of Freedom Guide to a Radical Capitalism Harper amp Row pp 127 128 Gray John N 1982 F A Hayek and the Rebirth of Classical Liberalism Introduction The Revival of Interest in Hayek A Unified Research Program in Hayek s Writings Institute for Humane Studies ASIN B00072HO7S Liggio Leonard P Winter 1982 Hayek s Constitution of Liberty Ethical Basis of the Juridical Framework of Individual Liberty Literature of Liberty 5 4 Ebenstein Alan O 2001 Friedrich Hayek A Biography University of Chicago Press p 383 ISBN 978 0226181509 Younkins Edward W July 6 2002 Mises Utilitarianism as Social Cooperation Le Quebecois Libre 106 Retrieved March 19 2020 Walker Jesse December 10 2005 R W Bradford RIP Reason Retrieved December 9 2019 Bevir Mark ed 2010 Encyclopedia of Political Theory Sage Publications p 811 ISBN 978 1 4129 5865 3 Vallentyne Peter February 12 2007 Libertarianism and the State In Frankel Paul Ellen Miller Fred Jr Paul Jeffrey eds Liberalism Old and New Vol 24 Cambridge University Press pp 187 205 ISBN 978 0 521 70305 5 The best known form of libertarianism right libertarianism is a version of classical liberalism but there is also a form of libertarianism left libertarianism that combines classical liberalism s concern for individual liberty with contemporary liberalism s robust concern for material equality Carlson Jennifer D 2012 Libertarianism In Miller Wilburn R ed The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America London Sage Publications p 1006 ISBN 978 1412988766 There exist three major camps in libertarian thought right libertarianism socialist libertariaism and left lbertarianism the extent to which these represent distinct ideologies as opposed to variations on a theme is contrasted by scholars Regardless these factions differ most pronouncedly with respect to private property Graham Paul Hoffman John 2003 An Introduction to Political Theory Routledge p 93 ISBN 978 1 3178 6342 7 A distinction is made between right libertarianism and left libertarianism Self ownership is the starting point for all libertarians but right and left libertarians divide over the implications for the ownership of external things from the self ownership premise Vallentyne Peter July 20 2010 Libertarianism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stanford University Retrieved December 26 2012 Becker Charlotte B Becker Lawrence C 2001 Encyclopedia of Ethics 3 Taylor amp Francis US p 1562 ISBN 978 0 4159 3675 0 Long Roderick T January 4 2008 An Interview With Roderick Long Liberalis in English Retrieved December 21 2019 a b Gregory Anthony December 21 2006 Left Right Moderate and Radical LewRockwell com Archived December 25 2014 at the Wayback Machine December 25 2014 a b Block Walter 2010 Libertarianism Is Unique and Belongs Neither to the Right Nor the Left A Critique of the Views of Long Holcombe and Baden on the Left Hoppe Feser and Paul on the Right Journal of Libertarian Studies 22 pp 127 170 a b Browne Harry December 21 1998 The Libertarian Stand on Abortion Archived October 6 2010 at the Wayback Machine Harry Browne org Retrieved January 14 2020 a b Read Leonard January 1956 Neither Left Nor Right The Freeman 48 2 71 73 a b c Rothbard Murray March 1 1971 The Left and Right Within Libertarianism WIN Peace and Freedom Through Nonviolent Action 7 4 6 10 Retrieved January 14 2020 Raimondo Justin 2000 An Enemy of the State Chapter 4 Beyond Left and Right Prometheus Books p 159 a b Machan Tibor 2004 Neither Left Nor Right Selected Columns 522 Hoover Institution Press ISBN 978 0817939823 a b Carson Kevin June 15 2014 What is Left Libertarianism Center for a Stateless Society Retrieved November 28 2019 a b Hess Karl February 18 2015 Anarchism Without Hyphens amp The Left Right Spectrum Center for a Stateless Society Tulsa Alliance of the Libertarian Left Retrieved March 17 2020 The far left as far as you can get away from the right would logically represent the opposite tendency and in fact has done just that throughout history The left has been the side of politics and economics that opposes the concentration of power and wealth and instead advocates and works toward the distribution of power into the maximum number of hands a b Long Roderick T April 8 2006 Rothbard s Left and Right Forty Years Later Mises Institute Rothbard Memorial Lecture Austrian Scholars Conference 2006 Retrieved March 17 2020 a b Richman Sheldon June 1 2007 Libertarianism Left or Right The Future of Freedom Foundation Retrieved March 15 2020 In fact libertarianism is planted squarely on the Left as I will try to demonstrate here Comegna Anthony Gomez Camillo October 3 2018 Libertarianism Then and Now Libertarianism Cato Institute I think you re right that the right wing associations with libertarianism that is mainly a product of the 20th century and really the second half of the 20th century and before that it was overtly left wing and radically left wing for the most part in almost all iterations Retrieved March 19 2020 Rothbard Murray Spring 1965 Left and Right The Prospects for Liberty Left and Right A Journal of Libertarian Thought 1 1 4 22 Berg Chris 2016 The Libertarian Alternative Melbourne University Press ISBN 978 0522868456 Block Walter October 2 2016 An Insightful Critique of Thick Libertarianism by a Thin Libertarian LewRockwell com Retrieved January 8 2020 Libertarianism Is More Than Just Rejecting Force Reason April 6 2014 Retrieved January 2 2020 Johnson Charles July 1 2008 Libertarianism Through Thick and Thin Foundation of Economic Education Retrieved January 2 2020 Richman Sheldon April 4 2014 TGIF In Praise of Thick Libertarianism The Future of Freedom Foundation Retrieved January 2 2020 Wendy McElroy August 7 2014 A Letter to My Father The Daily Bell Retrieved January 2 2020 Kinsella Stephan April 20 2014 The Limits of Libertarianism A Dissenting View StephanKinsella com Retrieved January 2 2020 Alliance of the Libertarian Left Alliance of the Libertarian Left The Alliance of the Libertarian Left is a multi tendency coalition of mutualists agorists voluntaryists geolibertarians left Rothbardians green libertarians dialectical anarchists radical minarchists and others on the libertarian left united by an opposition to statism and militarism to cultural intolerance including sexism racism and homophobia and to the prevailing corporatist capitalism falsely called a free market as well as by an emphasis on education direct action and building alternative institutions rather than on electoral politics as our chief strategy for achieving liberation Retrieved November 17 2019 a b 25 years at the Cato Institute The 2001 Annual Report PDF OCLC 52255585 Retrieved August 19 2013 Forbes List Forbes Retrieved November 13 2011 Articles of Incorporation Charles Koch Foundation and Restated Articles of Incorporation December 19 1974 Archived from the original on March 15 2012 Retrieved March 20 2012 Cobane Craig T 2005 Think Tanks Americans at War Gale Archived from the original on March 29 2015 Retrieved August 18 2013 James G McGann February 4 2015 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report Retrieved February 14 2015 Other Top Think Tank rankings include number 13 out of 85 in Defense and National Security number 5 out of 80 in Domestic Economic Policy number 4 out of 55 in Education Policy number 17 out of 85 in Foreign Policy and International Affairs number 8 out of 30 in Domestic Health Policy number 14 out of 25 in Global Health Policy number 18 out of 80 in International Development number 14 out of 50 in International Economic Policy number 8 out of 50 in Social Policy number 8 out of 75 for Best Advocacy Campaign number 17 out of 60 for Best Think Tank Network number 3 out of 60 for best Use of Social Networks number 9 out of 50 for Best External Relations Public Engagement Program number 2 out of 40 for Best Use of the Internet number 12 out of 40 for Best Use of Media number 5 out of 30 for Most Innovative Policy Ideas Proposals number 11 out of 70 for the Most Significant Impact on Public Policy and number 9 out of 60 for Outstanding Policy Oriented Public Programs Alan Gelb Anna Diofasi Nabil Hashmi Lauren Post March 17 2015 CGD s Think Tank Public Profile Rankings Are Back Center for Global Development Ideas to Action Center for Global Development Retrieved July 17 2015 Who We Are Antiwar com Retrieved November 17 2019 About Center for a Stateless Society Retrieved November 17 2019 Carson Kevin 2007 Studies in Mutualist Political Economy BookSurge Publishing ISBN 978 1419658693 Long Roderick T 2006 Editorial to Symposium Issue on Studies in Mutualist Political Economy Journal of Libertarian Studies 20 1 34 About FEE Foundation for Economic Eduacation Retrieved November 17 2019 Liberty Lives in New Hampshire Free State Project Retrieved July 12 2022 Media Memo Free State Project Members Make Up Disproportionate Percentage of NH Freedom Caucus April 24 2017 New Hampshire 2021 Liberty Ranking PDF Retrieved February 2 2022 My Turn Sununu must stop enabling white nationalism anti government extremism January 10 2021 Archived from the original on February 2 2022 Retrieved July 12 2022 Young Americans for Liberty Celebrates Victory for Right to Work in New Hampshire Press release February 24 2021 NH Primary Source Americans for Prosperity NH endorses Sununu Wheeler 6 House candidates July 30 2020 David Nolan Reflects on the Libertarian Party on its 30th Anniversary Colorado Freedom Report Archived from the original on March 4 2016 History International Society for Individual Liberty Archived July 2 2008 at the Wayback Machine Klatch Rebecca E 1999 A Generation Divided The New Left the New Right and the 1960s University of California Press pp 12 231 263 ISBN 0 520 21714 4 Who we are Archived November 17 2019 at the Wayback Machine International Society for Individual Liberty Retrieved November 17 2019 Founder of Libertarian International Dies Ballot Access News June 29 2008 Retrieved November 17 2019 Party mourns passing of International Society for Individual Liberty President Libertarian Party June 30 2009 Retrieved November 17 2019 Sam Tanenhaus and Jim Rutenberg January 25 2014 Rand Paul s Mixed Inheritance The New York Times Retrieved February 20 2014 What is the Mises Institute Mises Institute June 18 2014 Retrieved August 30 2016 Friedrich A Hayek Mises Institute Retrieved November 17 2019 Utley Jon Basil May 4 2009 Freedom fighter The American Conservative ISSN 1540 966X Archived from the original on November 5 2013 Retrieved September 16 2013 subscription required Peterson William H 2009 Mises in America Auburn Mises Institute pp 18 19 ISBN 978 1933550428 Lee Frederic S Cronin Bruce C 2010 Research Quality Rankings of Heterodox Economic Journals in a Contested Discipline American Journal of Economics and Sociology 69 5 1428 subscription required What is Austrian Economics Mises Institute Retrieved November 17 2019 Molinari Institute Molinari Institute The Institute takes its name from Gustave de Molinari 1819 1912 originator of the theory of Market Anarchism Abrams Garry June 25 1986 The Coming of Age for the Reason Foundation Libertarian Think Tank Is Relocating Here in Bid for a Higher Profile and Greater Clout Los Angeles Times Retrieved September 13 2016 Stewart James B June 13 2012 How Broccoli Landed on Supreme Court Menu The New York Times McGann James G February 4 2015 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report Retrieved February 14 2015 Robin Corey 2011 The Reactionary Mind Conservatism from Edmund Burke to Sarah Palin Oxford University Press pp 15 16 ISBN 978 0199793747 Raimondo Justin 2000 An Enemy of the State Chapter 4 Beyond left and right Prometheus Books p 159 Rothbard Murray August 17 2007 Floyd Arthur Baldy Harper RIP Mises Daily Mises Institute Retrieved March 15 2020 Gaus Gerald Gaus D Agostino Fred 2012 The Routledge Companion To Social And Political Philosophy Routledge p 225 ISBN 978 0 415 87456 4 Retrieved June 1 2013 Casey Gerard Meadowcroft John ed 2010 Murray Rothbard Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers 15 London The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc p ix Block Walter Rothbard Murray Rockwell Lew ed November 1994 Big Government Libertarianism The Irrepressible Rothbard Lew Rockwell com Retrieved March 15 2020 Sanchez Julian Weigel David January 16 2008 Who Wrote Ron Paul s Newsletters Reason Reason Foundation Retrieved March 15 2020 Badhwar Neera Long Roderick T July 5 2012 Zalta Edward N ed Ayn Rand Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved December 30 2014 Leonard Peikoff Contemporary Authors Online Retrieved March 2 2008 McLemee Scott September 1999 The Heirs Of Ayn Rand Has Objectivism Gone Subjective Lingua Franca 9 6 45 55 Rand Ayn 1992 1957 Atlas Shrugged 35th anniversary ed New York Dutton pp 1170 1171 ISBN 978 0 525 94892 6 Peikoff Leonard May 18 1989 Fact and Value The Intellectual Activist 5 1 Sciabarra Chris Matthew 1995 Ayn Rand The Russian Radical University Park Pennsylvania Pennsylvania State University Press pp 1 2 ISBN 978 0 271 01440 1 OCLC 31133644 Rand Ayn 1961 For the New Intellectual Random House Peikoff Leonard 1991 Objectivisim the Philosophy of Ayn Rand Dutton Schwartz Peter May 18 1989 On Moral Sanctions The Intellectual Activist Ayn Rand Institute 5 1 Archived from the original on August 6 2013 Retrieved July 29 2019 Kelley David 1989 Truth and Toleration Kelley David 2000 The Contested Legacy of Ayn Rand Truth and Toleration in Objectivism New Brunswick New Jersey Transaction Publishers ISBN 0 7658 0060 8 Burns Jennifer 2009 Goddess of the Market Ayn Rand and the American Right New York Oxford University Press p 4 ISBN 978 0 19 532487 7 OCLC 313665028 Gladstein Mimi Reisel 2009 Ayn Rand Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers series New York Continuum pp 107 108 124 ISBN 978 0 8264 4513 1 OCLC 319595162 Friedman Jeffrey 1993 What s Wrong with Libertarianism Critical Review 11 3 p 427 Sterba James P October 1994 From Liberty to Welfare Ethics Cambridge Massachusetts Blackwell 105 1 237 241 Partridge Ernest 2004 With Liberty and Justice for Some In Zimmerman Michael Callicott Baird Warren Karen Klaver Irene Clark John Environmental Philosophy From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology 4th ed Pearson ISBN 978 0 1311 2695 4 Bruenig Matt October 28 2013 Libertarians Are Huge Fans of Economic Coercion Demos Archived from the original on February 18 2019 Retrieved August 19 2016 Bruenig Matt November 17 2013 Libertarians are Huge Fans of Initiating Force Demos Archived from the original on December 15 2018 Retrieved August 19 2016 Complexity Economics Shows Us Why Laissez Faire Economics Always Fails Matthew Schneider Mayerson 2015 Peak Oil Apocalyptic Environmentalism and Libertarian Political Culture Chicago The University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0226285573 OCLC 922640625 Lind Michael June 4 2013 The Question Libertarians Just Can t Answer Salon Lind Michael August 30 2011 Why libertarians apologize for autocracy Salon Retrieved November 27 2019 Was America Ever Libertarian Independent Political Report April 25 2017 Retrieved October 6 2018 MacLean Nancy 2017 Democracy in Chains The Deep History of the Radical Right s Stealth Plan for America Penguin Books ISBN 978 1101980965 Ames Mark November 16 2012 When Congress Busted Milton Friedman and Libertarianism Was Created By Big Business Lobbyists NSFWCORP Archived from the original on November 24 2020 Retrieved June 26 2019 Greco Tony January 17 2012 Four Reasons to Reject Libertarianism Daily Kos Kos Media LLC Retrieved June 26 2019 Schneider Mayerson Matthew 2015 Peak Oil Apocalyptic Environmentalism and Libertarian Political Culture Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0226285436 On Anarchism Noam Chomsky interviewed by Tom Lane Chomsky info December 23 2006 Archived from the original on September 24 2015 Retrieved January 9 2016 Sterba James P October 1994 From Liberty to Welfare Ethics Cambridge Blackwell 105 1 237 241 Wood John Cunningham 1996 Karl Marx s Economics Critical Assessments I Routledge pp 248 249 ISBN 978 0 415 08714 8 Affluence and increased provision of free goods would reduce alienation in the work process and in combination with 1 the alienation of man s species life Greater leisure would create opportunities for creative and artistic activity outside of work Goodwin Barbara 2007 Using Political Ideas Wiley pp 107 109 ISBN 978 0 470 02552 9 Socialists consider the pleasures of creation equal if not superior to those of acquisition and consumption hence the importance of work in socialist society Whereas the capitalist Calvinist work ethic applauds the moral virtue of hard work idealistic socialists emphasize the joy This vision of creative man Homo Faber has consequences for their view of freedom Socialist freedom is the freedom to unfold and develop one s potential especially through unalienated work Acharya Ashok Bhargava Rajeev 2008 Political Theory An Introduction Pearson Education India p 255 Genuine freedom as Marx described it would become possible only when life activity was no longer constrained by the requirements of production or by the limitations of material scarcity Thus in the socialist view freedom is not an abstract ideal but a concrete situation that ensues only when certain conditions of interaction between man and nature material conditions and man and other men social relations are fulfilled Peffer Rodney G 2014 Marxism Morality and Social Justice Princeton University Press p 73 ISBN 978 0 691 60888 4 Marx believed the reduction of necessary labor time to be evaluatively speaking an absolute necessity He claims that real wealth is the developed productive force of all individuals It is no longer the labor time but the disposable time that is the measure of wealth Woods Allen 2014 The Free Development of Each Studies on Freedom Right and Ethics in Classical German Philosophy Marx on Equality pp 253 266 Morris Brian Global Anti Capitalism Anarchist Studies 14 2 pp 170 176 Sabatini Peter Fall Winter 1994 1995 Libertarianism Bogus Anarchy Anarchy A Journal of Desire Armed 41 Black Bob 1984 The Libertarian As Conservative The Abolition of Work and Other Essays p 144 Birch Paul 1998 Anarcho capitalism Dissolves Into City States Archived November 5 2010 at the Wayback Machine PDF Libertarian Alliance Legal Notes 28 4 ISSN 0267 7083 Retrieved July 5 2019 Reeder John P 1988 Source Sanction and Salvation Religion and Morality in Judaic and Christian Traditions Pearson College Div p 113 Le Guin Ursela K 2003 The Dispossessed A Novel HarperCollins ISBN 0 06 051275 X Davis Laurence Stillman Peter G 2005 The New Utopian Politics of Ursula K Le Guin s The Dispossessed Lexington Books p xvii Delany Samuel R November 1990 On Triton and Other Matters An Interview with Samuel R Delany Science Fiction Studies 52 Clement Ellie Oppenheim Charles January 2002 Anarchism Alternative Publishers and Copyright Journal of Anarchist Studies Somin Ilya December 9 2006 Russell Kirk Libertarianism and Fusionism The Volokh Conspiracy Retrieved June 26 2019 a b c Bogus Carl T 2011 Buckley William F Buckley Jr and the Rise of American Conservatism Bloomsbury Publishing p 17 ISBN 978 1 596 91580 0 Kirk Russell Fall 1981 Libertarians the Chirping Sectaries PDF Modern Age Wilmington Delaware Intercollegiate Studies Institute pp 345 351 Archived PDF from the original on September 2 2009 Kirk Russell 1981 Libertarians Chirping Sectaries Retrieved June 26 2019 a b Bogus Carl T 2011 Buckley William F Buckley Jr and the Rise of American Conservatism Bloomsbury Publishing p 16 ISBN 978 1 596 91580 0 Bibliography editDoherty Brian 2009 Radicals for Capitalism A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement London Hachette UK ISBN 978 0786731886 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Libertarianism in the United States Foundation for Economic Education American libertarian organization founded in 1946 Libertarianism org Sponsored by the Cato Institute it discusses the history theory and practice of American libertarianism Konkin s History of the Libertarian Movement Archived July 8 2011 at archive today Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Libertarianism in the United States amp oldid 1205024507, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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