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Köppen climate classification

The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems. It was first published by German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) in 1884,[2][3] with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936.[4][5] Later, German climatologist Rudolf Geiger (1894–1981) introduced some changes to the classification system, which is thus sometimes called the Köppen–Geiger climate classification.[6][7] Modified version of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification, the Köppen–Trewartha climate classification, was introduced by American geographer Glenn Thomas Trewartha (1896–1984) in 1966 and updated in 1980.

An updated Köppen–Geiger climate map[1]
  Af
  Am
  Aw/As
  BWh
  BWk
  BSh
  BSk
  Csa
  Csb
  Csc
  Cwa
  Cwb
  Cwc
  Cfa
  Cfb
  Cfc
  Dsa
  Dsb
  Dsc
  Dsd
  Dwa
  Dwb
  Dwc
  Dwd
  Dfa
  Dfb
  Dfc
  Dfd
  ET
  EF

The Köppen climate classification divides climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on seasonal precipitation and temperature patterns. The five main groups are A (tropical), B (arid), C (temperate), D (continental), and E (polar). Each group and subgroup is represented by a letter. All climates are assigned a main group (the first letter). All climates except for those in the E group are assigned a seasonal precipitation subgroup (the second letter). For example, Af indicates a tropical rainforest climate. The system assigns a temperature subgroup for all groups other than those in the A group, indicated by the third letter for climates in B, C, D, and the second letter for climates in E. For example, Cfb indicates an oceanic climate with warm summers as indicated by the ending b. Climates are classified based on specific criteria unique to each climate type.[8]

As Köppen designed the system based on his experience as a botanist, his main climate groups are based on what types of vegetation grow in a given climate classification region. In addition to identifying climates, the system can be used to analyze ecosystem conditions and identify the main types of vegetation within climates. Due to its link with the plant life of a given region, the system is useful in predicting future changes in plant life within that region.[1]

The Köppen climate classification system was further modified within the Trewartha climate classification system in the 1966 (revised in 1980). The Trewartha system sought to create a more refined middle latitude climate zone, which was one of the criticisms of the Köppen system (the C climate group was too broad).[9]: 200–1 

Overview

Köppen climate classification scheme symbols description table[1][8][10]
1st 2nd 3rd
A (Tropical) f (Rainforest)

m (Monsoon) w (Savanna, Dry winter) s (Savanna, Dry summer)

B (Dry) W (Arid Desert)

S (Semi-Arid or Steppe)

h (Hot)

k (Cold)

C (Temperate) w (Dry winter)

f (No dry season) s (Dry summer)

a (Hot summer)

b (Warm summer) c (Cold summer)

D (Continental) w (Dry winter)

f (No dry season) s (Dry summer)

a (Hot summer)

b (Warm summer) c (Cold summer) d (Very cold winter)

E (Polar) T (Tundra)

F (Eternal frost (ice cap))

The Köppen climate classification scheme divides climates into five main climate groups: A (tropical), B (arid), C (temperate), D (continental), and E (polar).[11] The second letter indicates the seasonal precipitation type, while the third letter indicates the level of heat.[12] Summers are defined as the 6-month period that is warmer either from April–September and/or October–March while winter is the 6-month period that is cooler.[1][10]

Group A: Tropical climates

This type of climate has every month of the year with an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher, with significant precipitation.[1][10]

  • Af = Tropical rainforest climate; average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in) in every month.
  • Am = Tropical monsoon climate; driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but at least  .[1][10]
  • Aw or As = Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate; with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in) and less than  .[1][10]

Group B: Arid climates

This type of climate is defined by little precipitation that does not fit the polar (EF or ET) criteria of no month with an average temperature greater than 10 °C (50 °F).

The threshold in millimeters is determined by multiplying the average annual temperature in Celsius by 20, then adding:

(a) 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the spring and summer months (April–September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October–March in the Southern), or
(b) 140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer, or
(c) 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer.

If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is BW (arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is BS (semi-arid: steppe climate).[1][10]

A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Originally, h signified low-latitude climate (average annual temperature above 18 °C (64.4 °F)) while k signified middle-latitude climate (average annual temperature below 18 °C), but the more common practice today, especially in the United States, is to use h to mean the coldest month has an average temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), with k denoting that at least one month's averages below 0 °C (or −3 °C (27 °F)). In addition, n is used to denote a climate characterized by frequent fog and H for high altitudes.[13][14][15]

Group C: Temperate climates

This type of climate has the coldest month averaging between 0 °C (32 °F)[10] (or −3 °C (27 °F))[8] and 18 °C (64.4 °F) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).[10][8] For the distribution of precipitation in locations that both satisfy a dry summer (Cs) and a dry winter (Cw), a location is considered to have a wet summer (Cw) when more precipitation falls within the summer months than the winter months while a location is considered to have a dry summer (Cs) when more precipitation falls within the winter months.[10] This additional criterion applies to locations that satisfies both Ds and Dw as well.[10]

  • Cfa = Humid subtropical climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled). No dry months in the summer.
  • Cfb = Temperate oceanic climate or subtropical highland climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Cfc = Subpolar oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Cwa = Monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter (alternative definition is 70% or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months).
  • Cwb = Subtropical highland climate or Monsoon-influenced temperate oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter (an alternative definition is 70% or more of average annual precipitation received in the warmest six months).
  • Cwc = Cold subtropical highland climate or Monsoon-influenced subpolar oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter (alternative definition is 70% or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months).
  • Csa = Hot-summer Mediterranean climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).[1]
  • Csb = Warm-summer Mediterranean climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).[1]
  • Csc = Cold-summer Mediterranean climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).[1]

Group D: Continental climates

This type of climate has at least one month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).[10][8]

  • Dfa = Hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Dfb = Warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Dfc = Subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Dfd = Extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Dwa = Monsoon-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter (alternative definition is 70% or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months).
  • Dwb = Monsoon-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter (alternative definition is 70% or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months).
  • Dwc = Monsoon-influenced subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter (alternative definition is 70% or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months).
  • Dwd = Monsoon-influenced extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter (alternative definition is 70% or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months).
  • Dsa = Mediterranean-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), average temperature of the warmest month above 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
  • Dsb = Mediterranean-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), average temperature of the warmest month below 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
  • Dsc = Mediterranean-influenced subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
  • Dsd = Mediterranean-influenced extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).

Group E: Polar and alpine climates

This type of climate has every month of the year with an average temperature below 10 °C (50 °F).[1][10]

  • ET = Tundra climate; average temperature of warmest month between 0 °C (32 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F).[1][10]
  • EF = Ice cap climate; eternal winter, with all 12 months of the year with average temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).[1][10]

Group A: Tropical/mega thermal climates

 
Tropical climate distribution

Tropical climates are characterized by constant high temperatures (at sea level and low elevations); all 12 months of the year have average temperatures of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher; and generally high annual precipitation. They are subdivided as follows:

Af: Tropical rainforest climate

All 12 months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in). These climates usually occur within 10° latitude of the equator. This climate has no natural seasons in terms of thermal and moisture changes.[9] When it is dominated most of the year by the doldrums low-pressure system due to the presence of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and when there are no cyclones then the climate is qualified as equatorial. When the trade winds dominate most of the year, the climate is a tropical trade-wind rainforest climate.[16]

Examples

Some of the places with this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g., the northwest Pacific coast of South and Central America, from Ecuador to Costa Rica; see, for instance, Andagoya, Colombia), but in many cases, the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as at Palembang, Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as at Sitiawan, Malaysia). Among these places, some have a pure equatorial climate (Balikpapan, Kuala Lumpur, Kuching, Lae, Medan, Paramaribo, Pontianak, and Singapore) with the dominant ITCZ aerological mechanism and no cyclones or a subequatorial climate with occasional hurricanes (Davao, Ratnapura, Victoria).

(Note. The term aseasonal refers to the lack in the tropical zone of large differences in daylight hours and mean monthly (or daily) temperature throughout the year. Annual cyclic changes occur in the tropics, but not as predictably as those in the temperate zone, albeit unrelated to temperature, but to water availability whether as rain, mist, soil, or groundwater. Plant response (e. g., phenology), animal (feeding, migration, reproduction, etc.), and human activities (plant sowing, harvesting, hunting, fishing, etc.) are tuned to this 'seasonality'. Indeed, in tropical South America and Central America, the 'rainy season (and the 'high water season') is called Invierno or Inverno, though it could occur in the Northern Hemisphere summer; likewise, the 'dry season (and 'low water season') is called Verano or verão, and can occur in the Northern Hemisphere winter).

Am: Tropical monsoon climate

This type of climate results from the monsoon winds which change direction according to the seasons. This climate has a driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with rainfall less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but at least   of average monthly precipitation.[9]: 208 

Examples

Aw/As: Tropical savanna climate

Aw: Tropical savanna climate with dry-winter characteristics

Aw climates have a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in) and less than   of average monthly precipitation. [9]: 208–11 

Examples

Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of the tropical zone from the low teens to the mid-20s latitudes, but occasionally an inner-tropical location (e.g., San Marcos, Antioquia, Colombia) also qualifies. The Caribbean coast, eastward from the Gulf of Urabá on the ColombiaPanamá border to the Orinoco River delta, on the Atlantic Ocean (about 4,000  km), have long dry periods (the extreme is the BSh climate (see below), characterized by very low, unreliable precipitation, present, for instance, in extensive areas in the Guajira, and Coro, western Venezuela, the northernmost peninsulas in South America, which receive <300  mm total annual precipitation, practically all in two or three months).

This condition extends to the Lesser Antilles and Greater Antilles forming the circum-Caribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminish inland (southward); at the latitude of the Amazon River—which flows eastward, just south of the equatorial line—the climate is Af. East from the Andes, between the dry, arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon are the Orinoco River's Llanos or savannas, from where this climate takes its name.

As: Tropical savanna climate with dry-summer characteristics

Sometimes As is used in place of Aw if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and longer days (during summer).[8][18] This is the case in parts of Hawaii, northwestern Dominican Republic, East Africa, and the Brazilian Northeastern Coast. In most places that have tropical wet and dry climates, however, the dry season occurs during the time of lower sun and shorter days because of rain shadow effects during the 'high-sun' part of the year.

Examples

Group B: Arid (desert and semi-arid) climates

 
Arid climate distribution

These climates are characterized by the amount of annual precipitation less than a threshold value that approximates the potential evapotranspiration.[9]: 212  The threshold value (in millimeters) is calculated as follows:

Multiply the average annual temperature in °C by 20, then add

  1. 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the high-sun half of the year (April through September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October through March in the Southern), or
  2. 140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period, or
  3. 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is so received.

According to the modified Köppen classification system used by modern climatologists, total precipitation in the warmest six months of the year is taken as a reference instead of the total precipitation in the high-sun half of the year.[19]

If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is BW (arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is BS (semi-arid: steppe climate).

A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Originally, h signified low-latitude climate (average annual temperature above 18 °C) while k signified middle-latitude climate (average annual temperature below 18 °C), but the more common practice today, especially in the United States, is to use h to mean the coldest month has an average temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), with k denoting that at least one month averages below 0 °C.

Desert areas situated along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations characterized by frequent fog and low clouds, although these places rank among the driest on earth in terms of actual precipitation received are labeled BWn with the n denoting a climate characterized by frequent fog.[13][14][15] The BSN category can be found in foggy coastal steppes.[20]

BW: Arid climate

Hot desert

Cold desert

BS: Semi-arid (steppe) climate

Hot semi-arid

Cold semi-arid

Group C: Temperate/mesothermal climates

 
Temperate climate distribution

In the Köppen climate system, temperate climates are defined as having an average temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F), as noted previously) in their coldest month but below 18 °C (64.4 °F). The average temperature of −3 °C (26.6 °F) roughly coincides with the equatorward limit of frozen ground and snow cover lasting for a month or more.

The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern—w indicates dry winters (driest winter month average precipitation less than one-tenth wettest summer month average precipitation). s indicates at least three times as much rain in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer. f means significant precipitation in all seasons (neither above-mentioned set of conditions fulfilled).[1]

The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat—a indicates warmest month average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F) while b indicates warmest month averaging below 22 °C but with at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F), and c indicates one to three months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F).[1][10][8]

Csa: Mediterranean hot summer climates

These climates usually occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 30° and 45°.[21] These climates are in the polar front region in winter, and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable, rainy weather. Summers are hot and dry, due to the domination of the subtropical high-pressure systems, except in the immediate coastal areas, where summers are milder due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents that may bring fog but prevent rain.[9]: 221–3 

Examples

Csb: Mediterranean warm/cool summer climates

Dry-summer climates sometimes extend to additional areas (sometimes well north or south of) typical Mediterranean climates, however since their warmest month average temperatures do not reach 22 °C (71.6 °F) they are classified as Csb.[1] Some of these areas would border the oceanic climate (Cfb), except their dry-summer patterns meet Köppen's Cs minimum thresholds.

Examples

Csc: Mediterranean cold summer climates

Cold summer Mediterranean climates (Csc) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to coastal Csb climate areas, where the strong maritime influence prevents the average winter monthly temperature from dropping below 0 °C. This climate is rare and is predominantly found in climate fringes and isolated areas of the Cascades and Andes Mountains, as the dry-summer climate extends further poleward in the Americas than elsewhere.[9] Rare instances of this climate can be found in some coastal locations in the North Atlantic and at high altitudes in Hawaii.

Examples

Cfa: Humid subtropical climates

These climates usually occur on the eastern coasts and eastern sides of continents, usually in the high 20s and 30s latitudes. Unlike the dry summer Mediterranean climates, humid subtropical climates have a warm and wet flow from the tropics that creates warm and moist conditions in the summer months. As such, summer (not winter as is the case in Mediterranean climates) is often the wettest season.

The flow out of the subtropical highs and the summer monsoon creates a southerly flow from the tropics that brings warm and moist air to the lower east sides of continents. This flow is often what brings the frequent but short-lived summer thundershowers so typical of the more southerly subtropical climates like the southern United States, southern China, and Japan.[9]: 223–6 

Examples

Cfb: Oceanic climate

Marine west coast climate

Cfb climates usually occur in the higher middle latitudes on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 40° and 60°; they are typically situated immediately poleward of the Mediterranean climates. However, in southeast Australia, southeast South America, and extreme southern Africa this climate is found immediately poleward of temperate climates, on places near the coast and at a somewhat lower latitude. In western Europe, this climate occurs in coastal areas up to 68°N in Norway.

These climates are dominated all year round by the polar front, leading to changeable, often overcast weather. Summers are mild due to cool ocean currents. Winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes, but usually very cloudy, and frequently wet. Cfb climates are also encountered at high elevations in certain subtropical and tropical areas, where the climate would be that of a subtropical/tropical rainforest if not for the altitude. These climates are called "highlands".[9]: 226–9 

Examples

Subtropical highland climate with uniform rainfall

Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall (Cfb) are a type of oceanic climate mainly found in the highlands of Australia, such as in or around the Great Dividing Range in the north of the state of New South Wales, and also sparsely in other continents, such as in South America, among others. Unlike a typical Cwb climate, they tend to have rainfall spread evenly throughout the year. They have characteristics of both the Cfb and Cfa climates, but unlike these climates, they have a high diurnal temperature variation and low humidity, owing to their inland location and relatively high elevation.

Examples

Cfc: Subpolar oceanic climate

Subpolar oceanic climates (Cfc) occur poleward of or at higher elevations than the maritime temperate climates and are mostly confined either to narrow coastal strips on the western poleward margins of the continents, or, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, to islands off such coasts. They occur in both hemispheres, most often at latitudes from 60° north and south to 70° north and south.[9]

Examples

Cwa: Dry-winter humid subtropical climate

Cwa is monsoonal influenced, having the classic dry winter–wet summer pattern associated with tropical monsoonal climates, two examples are Northern Vietnam (including Hanoi) and Vietnamese Thanh Hóa province. They are found at similar latitudes as the Cfa climates, except in regions (such as southeast Asia) where monsoons are more prevalent.

Examples

Cwb: Dry-winter subtropical highland climate

Dry-winter subtropical highland climate (Cwb) is a type of climate mainly found in highlands inside the tropics of Central America, South America, Africa, and Asia or areas in the subtropics. Winters are noticeable and dry, and summers can be very rainy. In the tropics, the monsoon is provoked by the tropical air masses and the dry winters by subtropical high pressure.

Examples

Cwc: Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climate

Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climates (Cwc) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to Cwb climates. This climate is rare and is found mainly in isolated locations mostly in the Andes in Bolivia and Peru, as well as in sparse mountain locations in Southeast Asia.

Group D: Continental/microthermal climates

 
Continental climate distribution
 
The snowy city of Sapporo

These climates have an average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) in their warmest months, and the coldest month average below 0 °C (or −3 °C (27 °F), as noted previously). These usually occur in the interiors of continents and on their upper east coasts, normally north of 40°N. In the Southern Hemisphere, group D climates are extremely rare due to the smaller land masses in the middle latitudes and the almost complete absence of land at 40–60°S, existing only in some highland locations.

Dfa/Dwa/Dsa: Hot summer continental climates

Dfa climates usually occur in the high 30s and low 40s latitudes, with a qualifying average temperature in the warmest month of greater than 22 °C (72 °F). In Europe, these climates tend to be much drier than in North America. Dsa exists at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (Csa) climates.[9]: 231–2 

These climates exist only in the northern hemisphere because the southern hemisphere has no large landmasses isolated from the moderating effects of the sea within the middle latitudes.

Examples

In eastern Asia, Dwa climates extend further south due to the influence of the Siberian high-pressure system, which also causes winters there to be dry, and summers can be very wet because of monsoon Circulation.

Examples

Dsa exists only at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (Csa) climates.

Examples

Dfb/Dwb/Dsb: Warm summer continental or hemiboreal climates

Dfb climates are immediately poleward of hot summer continental climates, generally in the high 40s and low 50s latitudes in North America and Asia, and also extending to higher latitudes in central and eastern Europe and Russia, between the maritime temperate and continental subarctic climates, where it extends up to 65 degrees latitude in places.[9]

Examples

Like with all Group D climates, Dwb climates only occur in the northern hemisphere.

Examples

Dsb arises from the same scenario as Dsa, but at even higher altitudes or latitudes, and chiefly in North America, since the Mediterranean climates extend further poleward than in Eurasia.

Examples

Dfc/Dwc/Dsc: Subarctic or boreal climates

Dfc, Dsc and Dwc climates occur poleward of the other group D climates, or at higher altitudes, generally between the 55° to 65° North latitudes, occasionally reaching up to the 70°N latitude.[9]: 232–5 

Examples:

Dfd/Dwd/Dsd: Subarctic or boreal climates with severe winters

Places with this climate have severe winters, with the temperature in their coldest month lower than −38 °C. These climates occur only in eastern Siberia. The names of some of the places with this climate have become veritable synonyms for the extreme, severe winter cold.[22]

Examples

Group E: Polar climates

 
Polar climate distribution

In the Köppen climate system, polar climates are defined as the warmest temperature of any month being below 10 °C (50 °F). Polar climates are further divided into two types, tundra climates and icecap climates:

ET: Tundra climate

Tundra climate (ET): Warmest month has an average temperature between 0 and 10 °C. These climates occur on the northern edges of the North American and Eurasian land masses (generally north of 70 °N although they may be found farther south depending on local conditions), and on nearby islands. ET climates are also found on some islands near the Antarctic Convergence, and at high elevations outside the polar regions, above the tree line.

Examples

EF: Ice cap climate

Ice cap climate (EF): This climate is dominant in Antarctica, inner Greenland, and summits of many high mountains, even at lower latitudes. Monthly average temperatures never exceed 0 °C (32 °F).

Examples

Ecological significance

Biomass

The Köppen climate classification is based on the empirical relationship between climate and vegetation. This classification provides an efficient way to describe climatic conditions defined by temperature and precipitation and their seasonality with a single metric. Because climatic conditions identified by the Köppen classification are ecologically relevant, it has been widely used to map the geographic distribution of long-term climate and associated ecosystem conditions.[23]

Climate change

Over recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using the classification to identify changes in climate and potential changes in vegetation over time.[12] The most important ecological significance of the Köppen climate classification is that it helps to predict the dominant vegetation type based on the climatic data and vice versa.[24]

In 2015, a Nanjing University paper published in Scientific Reports analyzing climate classifications found that between 1950 and 2010, approximately 5.7% of all land area worldwide had moved from wetter and colder classifications to drier and hotter classifications. The authors also found that the change "cannot be explained as natural variations but are driven by anthropogenic factors."[25]

A 2018 Nature study provides detailed maps for present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution.[26]

Other Köppen climate maps

All maps use the ≥0 °C (or >-3 °C) definition for temperate climates, the 18 °C (or >0 °C or >-3 °C) annual mean temperature threshold to distinguish between hot and cold dry climates, and solely 18 °C for tropical climates.[1]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018). "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Scientific Data. 5: 180214. Bibcode:2018NatSD...580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. ISSN 2052-4463. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988.
  2. ^ Köppen, Wladimir (1884). Translated by Volken, E.; Brönnimann, S. "Die Wärmezonen der Erde, nach der Dauer der heissen, gemässigten und kalten Zeit und nach der Wirkung der Wärme auf die organische Welt betrachtet" [The thermal zones of the earth according to the duration of hot, moderate and cold periods and to the impact of heat on the organic world)]. Meteorologische Zeitschrift (published 2011). 20 (3): 351–360. Bibcode:2011MetZe..20..351K. doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2011/105. S2CID 209855204. from the original on 2016-09-08. Retrieved 2016-09-02 – via ingentaconnect.com/content/schweiz/mz/2011/00000020/00000003/art00009.
  3. ^ Rubel, F.; Kottek, M (2011). "Comments on: 'The thermal zones of the Earth' by Wladimir Köppen (1884)". Meteorologische Zeitschrift. 20 (3): 361–365. Bibcode:2011MetZe..20..361R. doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2011/0258.
  4. ^ Köppen, Wladimir (1918). "Klassification der Klimate nach Temperatur, Niederschlag and Jahreslauf". Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen. Vol. 64. pp. 193–203, 243–248 – via koeppen-geiger.Vu-Wien.ac.at/Koeppen.htm.
  5. ^ Köppen, Wladimir (1936). "C". In Köppen, Wladimir; Geiger (publisher), Rudolf (eds.). Das geographische System der Klimate [The geographic system of climates] (PDF). Handbuch der Klimatologie. Vol. 1. Berlin: Borntraeger. (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2016-09-02.
  6. ^ Geiger, Rudolf (1954). "Klassifikation der Klimate nach W. Köppen" [Classification of climates after W. Köppen]. Landolt-Börnstein – Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und Technik, alte Serie. Berlin: Springer. Vol. 3. pp. 603–607.
  7. ^ Geiger, Rudolf (1961). Überarbeitete Neuausgabe von Geiger, R.: Köppen-Geiger / Klima der Erde. (Wandkarte 1:16 Mill.) – Klett-Perthes, Gotha.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Kottek, Markus; Grieser, Jürgen; Beck, Christoph; Rudolf, Bruno; Rubel, Franz (2006). "World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated" (PDF). Meteorologische Zeitschrift. 15 (3): 259–263. Bibcode:2006MetZe..15..259K. doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m McKnight, Tom L; Hess, Darrel (2000). "Climate Zones and Types". Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-020263-5.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Peel, M. C.; Finlayson B. L. & McMahon, T. A. (2007). "Updated world map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification" (PDF). Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 11 (5): 1633–1644. Bibcode:2007HESS...11.1633P. doi:10.5194/Hess-11-1633-2007. ISSN 1027-5606.
  11. ^ "Koppen climate classification | climatology". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on 2017-08-04. Retrieved 2017-08-04.
  12. ^ a b Chen, Hans; Chen, Deliang. "Köppen climate classification". hanschen.org. from the original on 2017-08-14. Retrieved 2017-08-04.
  13. ^ a b Cereceda, P.; Larrain, H.; osses, P.; Farias, M.; Egaña, I. (2008). "The climate of the coast and fog zone in the Tarapacá Region, Atacama Desert, Chile". Atmospheric Research. 87 (3–4): 301–311. Bibcode:2008AtmRe..87..301C. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2007.11.011. hdl:10533/139314.
  14. ^ a b (in Spanish). Universidad de Chile. Archived from the original on 22 January 2018. Retrieved 21 January 2018.
  15. ^ a b Inzunza, Juan. (PDF). Meteorología Descriptiva y Aplicaciones en Chile (in Spanish). p. 427. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 January 2018. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
  16. ^ "Climatologie" by Pierre Estienne and Alain Godard, Éditions Armand Colin (ISBN 2-200-31042-0), "CHAPITRE XVI 1. Les climats équatoriaux et subéquatoriaux 2. Les climats tropicaux 3. Les climats d'alizé 4. Les climats de montagne LES CLIMATS DE LA ZONE INTERTROPICALE : LES VARIÉTÉS" pages 308–323.
  17. ^ Linacre, Edward; Geerts, Bart (1997). Climates and Weather Explained. London: Routledge. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-415-12519-2.
  18. ^ . National Weather Service. Archived from the original on 24 December 2018. Retrieved 24 December 2018.
  19. ^ Critchfield, H.J. (1983). (4 ed.). University of Idaho. Archived from the original on 2009-09-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  20. ^ "Atlas Agroclimático de Chile–Estado Actual y Tendencias del Clima (Tomo I: Regiones de Arica Y Parinacota, Tarapacá y Antofagasta" (in Spanish). Universidad de Chile. 2017. from the original on 22 December 2018. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
  21. ^ George, Melvin R. . UCRangelands. University of California. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-01-26.
  22. ^ "Climate Types: Types of Climate | Climatology". Geography Notes. 2017-08-09. Retrieved 2022-06-17.
  23. ^ Chen, D.; Chen, H. W. (2013). "Using the Köppen classification to quantify climate variation and change: An example for 1901–2010" (PDF). Environmental Development. 6: 69–79. doi:10.1016/j.envdev.2013.03.007. (PDF) from the original on 2014-10-31. Retrieved 2014-10-29.
  24. ^ Critchfield, Howard J (1983). General Climatology (4th ed.). New Delhi: Prentice Hall. pp. 154–161. ISBN 978-81-203-0476-5.
  25. ^ Chan, D. and Wu, Q. (2015). "Significant anthropogenic-induced changes of climate classes since 1950". Scientific Reports. 5 (13487): 13487. Bibcode:2015NatSR...513487C. doi:10.1038/srep13487. PMC 4551970. PMID 26316255.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  26. ^ Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (2018-10-30). "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Scientific Data. 5 (1): 180214. Bibcode:2018NatSD...580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. ISSN 2052-4463. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988. S2CID 53111021.

External links

  • (archived 6 September 2010)
  • Global climate maps, using Köppen classification (FAO, 1999)

Climate records

  • (archived)

köppen, climate, classification, most, widely, used, climate, classification, systems, first, published, german, russian, climatologist, wladimir, köppen, 1846, 1940, 1884, with, several, later, modifications, köppen, notably, 1918, 1936, later, german, climat. The Koppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems It was first published by German Russian climatologist Wladimir Koppen 1846 1940 in 1884 2 3 with several later modifications by Koppen notably in 1918 and 1936 4 5 Later German climatologist Rudolf Geiger 1894 1981 introduced some changes to the classification system which is thus sometimes called the Koppen Geiger climate classification 6 7 Modified version of the Koppen Geiger climate classification the Koppen Trewartha climate classification was introduced by American geographer Glenn Thomas Trewartha 1896 1984 in 1966 and updated in 1980 An updated Koppen Geiger climate map 1 Af Am Aw As BWh BWk BSh BSk Csa Csb Csc Cwa Cwb Cwc Cfa Cfb Cfc Dsa Dsb Dsc Dsd Dwa Dwb Dwc Dwd Dfa Dfb Dfc Dfd ET EF The Koppen climate classification divides climates into five main climate groups with each group being divided based on seasonal precipitation and temperature patterns The five main groups are A tropical B arid C temperate D continental and E polar Each group and subgroup is represented by a letter All climates are assigned a main group the first letter All climates except for those in the E group are assigned a seasonal precipitation subgroup the second letter For example Af indicates a tropical rainforest climate The system assigns a temperature subgroup for all groups other than those in the A group indicated by the third letter for climates in B C D and the second letter for climates in E For example Cfb indicates an oceanic climate with warm summers as indicated by the ending b Climates are classified based on specific criteria unique to each climate type 8 As Koppen designed the system based on his experience as a botanist his main climate groups are based on what types of vegetation grow in a given climate classification region In addition to identifying climates the system can be used to analyze ecosystem conditions and identify the main types of vegetation within climates Due to its link with the plant life of a given region the system is useful in predicting future changes in plant life within that region 1 The Koppen climate classification system was further modified within the Trewartha climate classification system in the 1966 revised in 1980 The Trewartha system sought to create a more refined middle latitude climate zone which was one of the criticisms of the Koppen system the C climate group was too broad 9 200 1 Contents 1 Overview 2 Group A Tropical mega thermal climates 2 1 Af Tropical rainforest climate 2 2 Am Tropical monsoon climate 2 3 Aw As Tropical savanna climate 2 3 1 Aw Tropical savanna climate with dry winter characteristics 2 3 2 As Tropical savanna climate with dry summer characteristics 3 Group B Arid desert and semi arid climates 3 1 BW Arid climate 3 1 1 Hot desert 3 1 2 Cold desert 3 2 BS Semi arid steppe climate 3 2 1 Hot semi arid 3 2 2 Cold semi arid 4 Group C Temperate mesothermal climates 4 1 Csa Mediterranean hot summer climates 4 2 Csb Mediterranean warm cool summer climates 4 3 Csc Mediterranean cold summer climates 4 4 Cfa Humid subtropical climates 4 5 Cfb Oceanic climate 4 5 1 Marine west coast climate 4 5 2 Subtropical highland climate with uniform rainfall 4 6 Cfc Subpolar oceanic climate 4 7 Cwa Dry winter humid subtropical climate 4 8 Cwb Dry winter subtropical highland climate 4 9 Cwc Dry winter cold subtropical highland climate 5 Group D Continental microthermal climates 5 1 Dfa Dwa Dsa Hot summer continental climates 5 2 Dfb Dwb Dsb Warm summer continental or hemiboreal climates 5 3 Dfc Dwc Dsc Subarctic or boreal climates 5 4 Dfd Dwd Dsd Subarctic or boreal climates with severe winters 6 Group E Polar climates 6 1 ET Tundra climate 6 2 EF Ice cap climate 7 Ecological significance 7 1 Biomass 7 2 Climate change 8 Other Koppen climate maps 9 See also 10 References 11 External links 11 1 Climate recordsOverview EditKoppen climate classification scheme symbols description table 1 8 10 1st 2nd 3rdA Tropical f Rainforest m Monsoon w Savanna Dry winter s Savanna Dry summer B Dry W Arid Desert S Semi Arid or Steppe h Hot k Cold C Temperate w Dry winter f No dry season s Dry summer a Hot summer b Warm summer c Cold summer D Continental w Dry winter f No dry season s Dry summer a Hot summer b Warm summer c Cold summer d Very cold winter E Polar T Tundra F Eternal frost ice cap The Koppen climate classification scheme divides climates into five main climate groups A tropical B arid C temperate D continental and E polar 11 The second letter indicates the seasonal precipitation type while the third letter indicates the level of heat 12 Summers are defined as the 6 month period that is warmer either from April September and or October March while winter is the 6 month period that is cooler 1 10 Group A Tropical climatesThis type of climate has every month of the year with an average temperature of 18 C 64 4 F or higher with significant precipitation 1 10 Af Tropical rainforest climate average precipitation of at least 60 mm 2 4 in in every month Am Tropical monsoon climate driest month which nearly always occurs at or soon after the winter solstice for that side of the equator with precipitation less than 60 mm 2 4 in but at least 100 T o t a l A n n u a l P r e c i p i t a t i o n m m 25 textstyle 100 left frac mathrm Total Annual Precipitation mm 25 right 1 10 Aw or As Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm 2 4 in and less than 100 T o t a l A n n u a l P r e c i p i t a t i o n m m 25 textstyle 100 left frac mathrm Total Annual Precipitation mm 25 right 1 10 Group B Arid climatesThis type of climate is defined by little precipitation that does not fit the polar EF or ET criteria of no month with an average temperature greater than 10 C 50 F The threshold in millimeters is determined by multiplying the average annual temperature in Celsius by 20 then adding a 280 if 70 or more of the total precipitation is in the spring and summer months April September in the Northern Hemisphere or October March in the Southern or b 140 if 30 70 of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer or c 0 if less than 30 of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer If the annual precipitation is less than 50 of this threshold the classification is BW arid desert climate if it is in the range of 50 100 of the threshold the classification is BS semi arid steppe climate 1 10 A third letter can be included to indicate temperature Originally h signified low latitude climate average annual temperature above 18 C 64 4 F while k signified middle latitude climate average annual temperature below 18 C but the more common practice today especially in the United States is to use h to mean the coldest month has an average temperature above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F with k denoting that at least one month s averages below 0 C or 3 C 27 F In addition n is used to denote a climate characterized by frequent fog and H for high altitudes 13 14 15 BWh Hot desert climate BWk Cold desert climate BSh Hot semi arid climate BSk Cold semi arid climateGroup C Temperate climatesThis type of climate has the coldest month averaging between 0 C 32 F 10 or 3 C 27 F 8 and 18 C 64 4 F and at least one month averaging above 10 C 50 F 10 8 For the distribution of precipitation in locations that both satisfy a dry summer Cs and a dry winter Cw a location is considered to have a wet summer Cw when more precipitation falls within the summer months than the winter months while a location is considered to have a dry summer Cs when more precipitation falls within the winter months 10 This additional criterion applies to locations that satisfies both Ds and Dw as well 10 Cfa Humid subtropical climate coldest month averaging above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F at least one month s average temperature above 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F No significant precipitation difference between seasons neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled No dry months in the summer Cfb Temperate oceanic climate or subtropical highland climate coldest month averaging above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F all months with average temperatures below 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F No significant precipitation difference between seasons neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled Cfc Subpolar oceanic climate coldest month averaging above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F and 1 3 months averaging above 10 C 50 F No significant precipitation difference between seasons neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled Cwa Monsoon influenced humid subtropical climate coldest month averaging above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F at least one month s average temperature above 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter alternative definition is 70 or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months Cwb Subtropical highland climate or Monsoon influenced temperate oceanic climate coldest month averaging above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F all months with average temperatures below 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter an alternative definition is 70 or more of average annual precipitation received in the warmest six months Cwc Cold subtropical highland climate or Monsoon influenced subpolar oceanic climate coldest month averaging above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F and 1 3 months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter alternative definition is 70 or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months Csa Hot summer Mediterranean climate coldest month averaging above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F at least one month s average temperature above 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm 1 6 in 1 Csb Warm summer Mediterranean climate coldest month averaging above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F all months with average temperatures below 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm 1 6 in 1 Csc Cold summer Mediterranean climate coldest month averaging above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F and 1 3 months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm 1 6 in 1 Group D Continental climatesThis type of climate has at least one month averaging below 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F and at least one month averaging above 10 C 50 F 10 8 Dfa Hot summer humid continental climate coldest month averaging below 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F at least one month s average temperature above 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F No significant precipitation difference between seasons neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled Dfb Warm summer humid continental climate coldest month averaging below 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F all months with average temperatures below 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F No significant precipitation difference between seasons neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled Dfc Subarctic climate coldest month averaging below 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F and 1 3 months averaging above 10 C 50 F No significant precipitation difference between seasons neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled Dfd Extremely cold subarctic climate coldest month averaging below 38 C 36 4 F and 1 3 months averaging above 10 C 50 F No significant precipitation difference between seasons neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled Dwa Monsoon influenced hot summer humid continental climate coldest month averaging below 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F at least one month s average temperature above 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter alternative definition is 70 or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months Dwb Monsoon influenced warm summer humid continental climate coldest month averaging below 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F all months with average temperatures below 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter alternative definition is 70 or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months Dwc Monsoon influenced subarctic climate coldest month averaging below 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F and 1 3 months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter alternative definition is 70 or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months Dwd Monsoon influenced extremely cold subarctic climate coldest month averaging below 38 C 36 4 F and 1 3 months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter alternative definition is 70 or more of average annual precipitation is received in the warmest six months Dsa Mediterranean influenced hot summer humid continental climate coldest month averaging below 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F average temperature of the warmest month above 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm 1 2 in Dsb Mediterranean influenced warm summer humid continental climate coldest month averaging below 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F average temperature of the warmest month below 22 C 71 6 F and at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm 1 2 in Dsc Mediterranean influenced subarctic climate coldest month averaging below 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F and 1 3 months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm 1 2 in Dsd Mediterranean influenced extremely cold subarctic climate coldest month averaging below 38 C 36 4 F and 1 3 months averaging above 10 C 50 F At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm 1 2 in Group E Polar and alpine climatesThis type of climate has every month of the year with an average temperature below 10 C 50 F 1 10 ET Tundra climate average temperature of warmest month between 0 C 32 F and 10 C 50 F 1 10 EF Ice cap climate eternal winter with all 12 months of the year with average temperatures below 0 C 32 F 1 10 Group A Tropical mega thermal climates Edit Tropical climate distribution Tropical climates are characterized by constant high temperatures at sea level and low elevations all 12 months of the year have average temperatures of 18 C 64 4 F or higher and generally high annual precipitation They are subdivided as follows Af Tropical rainforest climate Edit Main article Tropical rainforest climate All 12 months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm 2 4 in These climates usually occur within 10 latitude of the equator This climate has no natural seasons in terms of thermal and moisture changes 9 When it is dominated most of the year by the doldrums low pressure system due to the presence of the Intertropical Convergence Zone ITCZ and when there are no cyclones then the climate is qualified as equatorial When the trade winds dominate most of the year the climate is a tropical trade wind rainforest climate 16 Examples Apia Samoa Af Balikpapan Indonesia Af Davao Philippines Af Fort Lauderdale Florida United States Af bordering on Am Georgetown Guyana Af Hilo Hawaii United States Af Honiara Solomon Islands Af Innisfail Queensland Australia Af Ishigaki Japan Af Kuala Lumpur Malaysia Af Kampala Uganda Af Kisumu Kenya Af Kuching Malaysia Af Lae Papua New Guinea Af La Ceiba Honduras Af Manaus Brazil Af Medan Indonesia Af Moroni Comoros Af Pago Pago American Samoa Af Paramaribo Suriname Af Pontianak Indonesia Af Port Vila Vanuatu Af Quibdo Colombia Af Ratnapura Sri Lanka Af Salvador da Bahia Brazil Af Santos Brazil Af Singapore Af Suva Fiji Af Toamasina Madagascar Af Victoria Seychelles Af Some of the places with this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year e g the northwest Pacific coast of South and Central America from Ecuador to Costa Rica see for instance Andagoya Colombia but in many cases the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest as at Palembang Indonesia or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain as at Sitiawan Malaysia Among these places some have a pure equatorial climate Balikpapan Kuala Lumpur Kuching Lae Medan Paramaribo Pontianak and Singapore with the dominant ITCZ aerological mechanism and no cyclones or a subequatorial climate with occasional hurricanes Davao Ratnapura Victoria Note The term aseasonal refers to the lack in the tropical zone of large differences in daylight hours and mean monthly or daily temperature throughout the year Annual cyclic changes occur in the tropics but not as predictably as those in the temperate zone albeit unrelated to temperature but to water availability whether as rain mist soil or groundwater Plant response e g phenology animal feeding migration reproduction etc and human activities plant sowing harvesting hunting fishing etc are tuned to this seasonality Indeed in tropical South America and Central America the rainy season and the high water season is called Invierno or Inverno though it could occur in the Northern Hemisphere summer likewise the dry season and low water season is called Verano or verao and can occur in the Northern Hemisphere winter Am Tropical monsoon climate Edit Main article Tropical monsoon climate This type of climate results from the monsoon winds which change direction according to the seasons This climate has a driest month which nearly always occurs at or soon after the winter solstice for that side of the equator with rainfall less than 60 mm 2 4 in but at least 100 T o t a l A n n u a l P r e c i p i t a t i o n m m 25 textstyle 100 left frac Total Annual Precipitation mm 25 right of average monthly precipitation 9 208 Examples Cairns Queensland Australia Am 17 Chittagong Bangladesh Am Coatzacoalcos Veracruz Mexico Am Conakry Guinea Am Douala Cameroon Am Freetown Sierra Leone Am Guanare Venezuela Am Huế Thừa Thien Huế Vietnam Am Jakarta Indonesia Am Kochi Kerala India Am Ko Samui Thailand Am bordering on Af Libreville Gabon Am Malabo Equatorial Guinea Am Male Maldives Am Mangalore Karnataka India Am Miami Florida United States Am Monrovia Liberia Am Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria Am Puerto Ayacucho Venezuela Am Qionghai City China Am Recife Pernambuco Brazil Am San Juan Puerto Rico Am Santo Domingo Dominican Republic Am Taitung Taiwan Am Thiruvananthapuram Kerala India Am Yangon Myanmar Am Zanzibar City Tanzania Am Aw As Tropical savanna climate Edit Main article Tropical savanna climate Aw Tropical savanna climate with dry winter characteristics Edit Aw climates have a pronounced dry season with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm 2 4 in and less than 100 T o t a l A n n u a l P r e c i p i t a t i o n m m 25 textstyle 100 left frac mathrm Total Annual Precipitation mm 25 right of average monthly precipitation 9 208 11 Examples Abidjan Ivory Coast Aw Abuja Nigeria Aw Bamako Mali Aw Bangkok Thailand Aw Bangui Central African Republic Aw Banjul The Gambia Aw Barranquilla Colombia Aw Brasilia Brazil Aw Brazzaville Republic of the Congo Aw Bujumbura Burundi Aw Cancun Quintana Roo Mexico Aw bordering on Am Caracas Venezuela Aw Cartagena Colombia Aw Chennai Tamil Nadu India Aw Cotonou Benin Aw Dar es Salaam Tanzania Aw Darwin Northern Territory Australia Aw Dhaka Bangladesh Aw Dili East Timor Aw Guatemala City Guatemala Aw bordering on Cwb Guayaquil Ecuador Aw Havana Cuba Aw bordering on Am Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam Aw Key West Florida United States Aw Kano Nigeria Aw Kaohsiung Taiwan Aw Kigali Rwanda Aw Kingston Jamaica Aw Kinshasa Democratic Republic of Congo Aw Kolkata West Bengal India Aw Kumasi Ghana Aw Kupang Indonesia Aw Lagos Lagos State Nigeria Aw Lome Togo Aw Mumbai Maharashtra India Aw Naples Florida United States Aw Panama City Panama Aw Phnom Penh Cambodia Aw Port au Prince Haiti Aw Port Moresby Papua New Guinea Aw Port of Spain Trinidad and Tobago Aw Rio de Janeiro Brazil Aw bordering on Am Santa Cruz de la Sierra Bolivia Aw Sanya Hainan China Aw San Pedro Sula Honduras Aw bordering on Am Surabaya Indonesia Aw Tegucigalpa Honduras Aw Townsville Queensland Australia Aw Veracruz Veracruz Mexico Aw Vientiane Laos Aw Yaounde Cameroon Aw Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of the tropical zone from the low teens to the mid 20s latitudes but occasionally an inner tropical location e g San Marcos Antioquia Colombia also qualifies The Caribbean coast eastward from the Gulf of Uraba on the Colombia Panama border to the Orinoco River delta on the Atlantic Ocean about 4 000 km have long dry periods the extreme is the BSh climate see below characterized by very low unreliable precipitation present for instance in extensive areas in the Guajira and Coro western Venezuela the northernmost peninsulas in South America which receive lt 300 mm total annual precipitation practically all in two or three months This condition extends to the Lesser Antilles and Greater Antilles forming the circum Caribbean dry belt The length and severity of the dry season diminish inland southward at the latitude of the Amazon River which flows eastward just south of the equatorial line the climate is Af East from the Andes between the dry arid Caribbean and the ever wet Amazon are the Orinoco River s Llanos or savannas from where this climate takes its name As Tropical savanna climate with dry summer characteristics Edit Sometimes As is used in place of Aw if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and longer days during summer 8 18 This is the case in parts of Hawaii northwestern Dominican Republic East Africa and the Brazilian Northeastern Coast In most places that have tropical wet and dry climates however the dry season occurs during the time of lower sun and shorter days because of rain shadow effects during the high sun part of the year Examples Cape Coast Ghana As Cali Colombia As Fortaleza Brazil As Jaffna Sri Lanka As Lanai City Hawaii Hawaii United States As Monte Cristi Dominican Republic As Mombasa Kenya As Nha Trang Vietnam As Natal Rio Grande do Norte Brazil As Sao Tome Sao Tome and Principe As Trincomalee Sri Lanka As Group B Arid desert and semi arid climates EditMain articles Desert climate and Semi arid climate Arid climate distribution These climates are characterized by the amount of annual precipitation less than a threshold value that approximates the potential evapotranspiration 9 212 The threshold value in millimeters is calculated as follows Multiply the average annual temperature in C by 20 then add280 if 70 or more of the total precipitation is in the high sun half of the year April through September in the Northern Hemisphere or October through March in the Southern or140 if 30 70 of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period or0 if less than 30 of the total precipitation is so received According to the modified Koppen classification system used by modern climatologists total precipitation in the warmest six months of the year is taken as a reference instead of the total precipitation in the high sun half of the year 19 If the annual precipitation is less than 50 of this threshold the classification is BW arid desert climate if it is in the range of 50 100 of the threshold the classification is BS semi arid steppe climate A third letter can be included to indicate temperature Originally h signified low latitude climate average annual temperature above 18 C while k signified middle latitude climate average annual temperature below 18 C but the more common practice today especially in the United States is to use h to mean the coldest month has an average temperature above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 27 F with k denoting that at least one month averages below 0 C Desert areas situated along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near tropical locations characterized by frequent fog and low clouds although these places rank among the driest on earth in terms of actual precipitation received are labeled BWn with the n denoting a climate characterized by frequent fog 13 14 15 The BSN category can be found in foggy coastal steppes 20 BW Arid climate Edit Main article Desert climate Hot desert Edit Ahvaz Iran BWh Alice Springs Australia BWh Alexandria Egypt BWh Almeria Andalusia Spain BWh bordering on BSh Aziziya Jafara Libya BWh Baghdad Iraq BWh Coober Pedy Australia BWh Cairo Egypt BWh Death Valley California United States BWh location of the hottest air temperature ever recorded on Earth Djibouti City Djibouti BWh Doha Qatar BWh Dubai United Arab Emirates BWh Eilat Southern District Israel BWh Hermosillo Sonora Mexico BWh Kuwait City Kuwait BWh Karachi Pakistan BWh Khartoum Sudan BWh Las Palmas Canary Islands Spain BWh Las Vegas Nevada United States BWh Lima Peru BWh Mecca Makkah Region Saudi Arabia BWh Muscat Oman BWh Nouakchott Mauritania BWh Phoenix Arizona United States BWh Riyadh Saudi Arabia BWh Timbuktu Mali BWh Upington Northern Cape South Africa BWh Yazd Iran BWh Zahedan Iran BWh Cold desert Edit Albuquerque New Mexico United States BWk bordering on BSk Antofagasta Chile BWk Aral Kazakhstan BWk Ashgabat Turkmenistan BWk Ciudad Juarez Chihuahua Mexico BWk bordering on BWh Damascus Syria BWk Isfahan Iran BWk Kerman Iran BWk Leh India BWk Neuquen Argentina BWk Nukus Uzbekistan BWk Saint George Utah United States BWk bordering on BWh Sanaa Yemen BWk bordering on BSk Turpan Xinjiang China BWk Walvis Bay Erongo Region Namibia BWk Yakima Washington United States BWk bordering on BSk BS Semi arid steppe climate Edit Main article Semi arid climate Hot semi arid Edit Accra Ghana BSh bordering on Aw Alicante Spain BSh bordering on BSk Amman Amman Governorate Jordan BSh Barquisimeto Venezuela BSh Coimbatore Tamil Nadu India BSh Dakar Senegal BSh Honolulu Hawaii United States BSh Jodhpur India BSh Kimberley Northern Cape South Africa BSh Kurnool Andhra Pradesh India BSh Lahore Punjab Pakistan BSh Lampedusa Sicily Italy BSh Luanda Angola BSh Mandalay Myanmar BSh bordering on Aw Maputo Mozambique BSh Maracaibo Venezuela BSh Marrakesh Morocco BSh Mogadishu Somalia BSh Monterrey Mexico BSh bordering on Cwa Mount Isa Queensland Australia BSh N Djamena Chad BSh Nicosia Cyprus BSh Odessa Texas United States BSh Oranjestad Aruba BSh Ouagadougou Burkina Faso BSh Petrolina Pernambuco Brazil BSh Patos Paraiba Brazil BSh Piraeus Greece BSh Port Louis Mauritius BSh Queretaro City Queretaro Mexico BSh Santa Cruz de Tenerife Canary Islands Spain BSh Toliara Madagascar BSh Tripoli Libya BSh Windhoek Namibia BSh Cold semi arid Edit Aleppo Syria BSk Alexandra New Zealand BSk bordering on Cfb Asmara Eritrea BSk Astrakhan Russia BSk Baku Azerbaijan BSk Boise Idaho United States BSk Comodoro Rivadavia Argentina BSk Denver Colorado United States BSk Kabul Afghanistan BSk Kamloops British Columbia Canada BSk Kalgoorlie Western Australia Australia BSk Karaj Iran BSk Konya Turkey BSk La Quiaca Jujuy Argentina BSk L Agulhas Western Cape South Africa BSk Lethbridge Alberta Canada BSk Lhasa Tibet Autonomous Region China BSk bordering on Cwb and Dwb Mashhad Iran BSk Mildura Victoria Australia BSk bordering on BSh Oral Kazakhstan BSk Quetta Pakistan BSk Reno Nevada United States BSk Saskatoon Saskatchewan Canada BSk bordering on Dfb Shijiazhuang Hebei China BSk Tehran Iran BSk bordering on Csa Tianjin China BSk bordering on Dwa Ulaanbaatar Mongolia BSk bordering on Dwb Ulan Ude Russia BSk Yerevan Armenia BSk bordering on Dfa Zacatecas City Zacatecas Mexico BSk Zaragoza Spain BSk Group C Temperate mesothermal climates EditMain article Temperate climate Temperate climate distribution In the Koppen climate system temperate climates are defined as having an average temperature above 0 C 32 F or 3 C 26 6 F as noted previously in their coldest month but below 18 C 64 4 F The average temperature of 3 C 26 6 F roughly coincides with the equatorward limit of frozen ground and snow cover lasting for a month or more The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern w indicates dry winters driest winter month average precipitation less than one tenth wettest summer month average precipitation s indicates at least three times as much rain in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer f means significant precipitation in all seasons neither above mentioned set of conditions fulfilled 1 The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat a indicates warmest month average temperature above 22 C 71 6 F while b indicates warmest month averaging below 22 C but with at least four months averaging above 10 C 50 0 F and c indicates one to three months averaging above 10 C 50 0 F 1 10 8 Csa Mediterranean hot summer climates Edit Main article Mediterranean climate These climates usually occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 30 and 45 21 These climates are in the polar front region in winter and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable rainy weather Summers are hot and dry due to the domination of the subtropical high pressure systems except in the immediate coastal areas where summers are milder due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents that may bring fog but prevent rain 9 221 3 Examples Adelaide Australia Csa Algiers Algeria Csa Antalya Turkey Csa Athens Greece Csa bordering on BSh Barcelona Spain Csa bordering on Cfa Beirut Lebanon Csa Casablanca Morocco Csa Dushanbe Tajikistan Csa Faro Portugal Csa Florence Italy Csa bordering on Cfa Izmir Turkey Csa Jerusalem Israel Csa Kermanshah Iran Csa Los Angeles California United States Csa bordering on BSh Latakia Syria Csa Lisbon Portugal Csa Madrid Spain Csa bordering on BSk Marseille France Csa Mersin Turkey Csa Monaco Csa Naples Italy Csa bordering on Cfa Nice France Csa Palma de Mallorca Spain Csa Perth Australia Csa Rome Italy Csa Sacramento California United States Csa Tel Aviv Israel Csa Tangier Morocco Csa Tashkent Uzbekistan Csa bordering on BSk Tecate Baja California Mexico Csa Tunis Tunisia Csa Vatican City Csa Valletta Malta Csa Csb Mediterranean warm cool summer climates Edit Dry summer climates sometimes extend to additional areas sometimes well north or south of typical Mediterranean climates however since their warmest month average temperatures do not reach 22 C 71 6 F they are classified as Csb 1 Some of these areas would border the oceanic climate Cfb except their dry summer patterns meet Koppen s Cs minimum thresholds Examples Albany Western Australia Australia Csb Bayda Libya Csb Cape Town South Africa Csb Concepcion Chile Csb Guarda Portugal Csb Linares Chile Csb Mount Gambier South Australia Australia Csb Nakuru Kenya Csb Ohrid North Macedonia Csb Porto Portugal Csb Rieti Italy Csb San Carlos de Bariloche Argentina Csb San Cristobal de la Laguna Spain Csb San Francisco California United States Csb Santa Barbara California United States Csb Salamanca Spain Csb Seattle Washington United States Csb Sintra Portugal Csb Victoria British Columbia Canada Csb Csc Mediterranean cold summer climates Edit Cold summer Mediterranean climates Csc exist in high elevation areas adjacent to coastal Csb climate areas where the strong maritime influence prevents the average winter monthly temperature from dropping below 0 C This climate is rare and is predominantly found in climate fringes and isolated areas of the Cascades and Andes Mountains as the dry summer climate extends further poleward in the Americas than elsewhere 9 Rare instances of this climate can be found in some coastal locations in the North Atlantic and at high altitudes in Hawaii Examples Akureyri Iceland Csc alternatively dry summer subarctic climate Dsc Balmaceda Chile Csc Government Camp Oregon United States Csc bordering on Dsb and Dsc Haleakala Summit Hawaii United States Csc Harstad Norway Csc alternatively dry summer subarctic climate Dsc Liawenee Australia Csc bordering on Csb Spirit Lake Washington United States Csc Cfa Humid subtropical climates Edit Main article Humid subtropical climate These climates usually occur on the eastern coasts and eastern sides of continents usually in the high 20s and 30s latitudes Unlike the dry summer Mediterranean climates humid subtropical climates have a warm and wet flow from the tropics that creates warm and moist conditions in the summer months As such summer not winter as is the case in Mediterranean climates is often the wettest season The flow out of the subtropical highs and the summer monsoon creates a southerly flow from the tropics that brings warm and moist air to the lower east sides of continents This flow is often what brings the frequent but short lived summer thundershowers so typical of the more southerly subtropical climates like the southern United States southern China and Japan 9 223 6 Examples Astara Iran Cfa Asuncion Paraguay Cfa bordering on Aw Atlanta Georgia United States Cfa Bandar e Anzali Iran Cfa Buenos Aires Argentina Cfa Belgrade Serbia Cfa Bologna Italy Cfa Brisbane Australia Cfa Chongqing China Cfa bordering on Cwa Durban South Africa Cfa Florianopolis Brazil Cfa Guangzhou China Cfa Jeju South Korea Cfa Krasnodar Russia Cfa Lugano Switzerland Cfa bordering on Cfb Lyon France Cfa bordering on Cfb Matamoros Tamaulipas Mexico Cfa bordering on Aw Milan Italy Cfa Montevideo Uruguay Cfa New York New York United States Cfa bordering on Dfa Orlando Florida United States Cfa Osaka Japan Cfa Porto Alegre Brazil Cfa Rasht Iran Cfa Rosario Argentina Cfa bordering on Cwa Sao Paulo Brazil Cfa bordering on Cwa Samsun Turkey Cfa San Marino Cfa bordering on Cfb Sari Iran Cfa Shanghai China Cfa Sochi Russia Cfa Split Croatia Cfa bordering on Csa Srinagar India Cfa Sydney Australia Cfa Taipei Taiwan Cfa bordering on Cwa Tbilisi Georgia Cfa Tirana Albania Cfa Tokyo Japan Cfa Toulouse France Cfa Venice Italy Cfa Yokohama Japan Cfa Cfb Oceanic climate Edit Marine west coast climate Edit Cfb climates usually occur in the higher middle latitudes on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 40 and 60 they are typically situated immediately poleward of the Mediterranean climates However in southeast Australia southeast South America and extreme southern Africa this climate is found immediately poleward of temperate climates on places near the coast and at a somewhat lower latitude In western Europe this climate occurs in coastal areas up to 68 N in Norway These climates are dominated all year round by the polar front leading to changeable often overcast weather Summers are mild due to cool ocean currents Winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes but usually very cloudy and frequently wet Cfb climates are also encountered at high elevations in certain subtropical and tropical areas where the climate would be that of a subtropical tropical rainforest if not for the altitude These climates are called highlands 9 226 9 Examples Amsterdam North Holland Netherlands Cfb Auckland New Zealand Cfb Belfast Northern Ireland United Kingdom Cfb Bergen Vestland Norway Cfb Berlin Germany Cfb Bern Switzerland Cfb bordering on Dfb Bilbao Spain Cfb Block Island Rhode Island United States Cfb bordering on Dfb Bordeaux France Cfb Brussels Belgium Cfb Corvo Island Azores Portugal Cfb bordering on Cfa Christchurch New Zealand Cfb Copenhagen Denmark Cfb Dublin Ireland Cfb Forks Washington United States Cfb Frankfurt Germany Cfb George Western Cape South Africa Cfb Glasgow Scotland United Kingdom Cfb Hobart Tasmania Australia Cfb Ketchikan Alaska United States Cfb Luxembourg City Luxembourg Cfb London England United Kingdom Cfb Mar del Plata Buenos Aires Argentina Cfb Malmo Sweden Cfb Melbourne Victoria Australia Cfb Munich Bavaria Germany Cfb bordering on Dfb Orland Trondelag Norway Cfb Osorno Los Lagos Region Chile Cfb Port Elizabeth South Africa Cfb Prince Rupert British Columbia Canada Cfb Puerto Montt Los Lagos Region Chile Cfb Paris France Cfb Santiago de Compostela Spain Cfb Santander Spain Cfb Skagen Denmark Cfb Vaduz Liechtenstein Cfb Valdivia Los Rios Region Chile Cfb Vancouver British Columbia Canada Cfb bordering on Csb Vienna Austria Cfb Wellington New Zealand Cfb Wollongong New South Wales Australia Cfb bordering on Cfa Zagreb Croatia Cfb bordering on Dfb Zonguldak Turkey Cfb bordering on Cfa Zurich Switzerland Cfb bordering on Dfb Subtropical highland climate with uniform rainfall Edit Main article Oceanic climate Subtropical highland variety Cfb Cwb Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall Cfb are a type of oceanic climate mainly found in the highlands of Australia such as in or around the Great Dividing Range in the north of the state of New South Wales and also sparsely in other continents such as in South America among others Unlike a typical Cwb climate they tend to have rainfall spread evenly throughout the year They have characteristics of both the Cfb and Cfa climates but unlike these climates they have a high diurnal temperature variation and low humidity owing to their inland location and relatively high elevation Examples Bogota Colombia Cfb Boone North Carolina United States Cfb bordering on Dfb Cameron Highlands Malaysia Cfb Chachapoyas Peru Cfb Coban Guatemala Cfb Constanza Dominican Republic Cfb Cuenca Ecuador Cfb Curitiba Parana Brazil Cfb Eldoret Kenya Cfb Kodaikanal India Cfb Le Tampon Reunion France Cfb Lithgow New South Wales Australia Cfb Manizales Colombia Cfb Maseru Lesotho Cfb bordering on Cwb Mthatha South Africa Cfb Nuwara Eliya Sri Lanka Cfb Quito Pichincha Ecuador Cfb Teresopolis Rio de Janeiro Brazil Cfb Xalapa Veracruz Mexico Cfb bordering on Cfa Cfc Subpolar oceanic climate Edit Subpolar oceanic climates Cfc occur poleward of or at higher elevations than the maritime temperate climates and are mostly confined either to narrow coastal strips on the western poleward margins of the continents or especially in the Northern Hemisphere to islands off such coasts They occur in both hemispheres most often at latitudes from 60 north and south to 70 north and south 9 Examples Auckland Islands New Zealand Cfc Charlotte Pass Australia Cfc bordering on Dfc Karlsoy Norway Cfc Miena Tasmania Australia Cfc Punta Arenas Chile Cfc Rio Grande Tierra del Fuego Argentina Cfc Rio Turbio Santa Cruz Argentina Cfc Reykjavik Iceland Cfc Rost Norway Cfc Torshavn Faroe Islands Cfc Unalaska Alaska United States Cfc Cwa Dry winter humid subtropical climate Edit Cwa is monsoonal influenced having the classic dry winter wet summer pattern associated with tropical monsoonal climates two examples are Northern Vietnam including Hanoi and Vietnamese Thanh Hoa province They are found at similar latitudes as the Cfa climates except in regions such as southeast Asia where monsoons are more prevalent Examples Busan South Korea Cwa Campinas Brazil Cwa bordering on Aw Chengdu Sichuan China Cwa Cordoba Argentina Cwa Delhi India Cwa bordering on BSh Guadalajara Jalisco Mexico Cwa Guwahati India Cwa Hong Kong Cwa Haikou China Cwa Hanoi Vietnam Cwa Islamabad Pakistan Cwa Kathmandu Nepal Cwa Lilongwe Malawi Cwa Lubumbashi Democratic Republic of Congo Cwa Lucknow India Cwa Lusaka Zambia Cwa Macau Cwa Mackay Queensland Australia Cwa Pretoria South Africa Cwa Rangpur Bangladesh Cwa Santiago del Estero Argentina Cwa Sialkot Pakistan Cwa Taunggyi Myanmar Cwa Yeosu South Korea Cwa Zhengzhou China Cwa Cwb Dry winter subtropical highland climate Edit Dry winter subtropical highland climate Cwb is a type of climate mainly found in highlands inside the tropics of Central America South America Africa and Asia or areas in the subtropics Winters are noticeable and dry and summers can be very rainy In the tropics the monsoon is provoked by the tropical air masses and the dry winters by subtropical high pressure Examples Addis Ababa Ethiopia Cwb Antananarivo Madagascar Cwb Arusha Tanzania Cwb Cajamarca Peru Cwb Cusco Peru Cwb Cherrapunji India Cwb Dali City China Cwb Diamantina Brazil Cwb Da Lat Vietnam Cwb Gangtok India Cwb Hakha Myanmar Cwb Harare Zimbabwe Cwb Johannesburg South Africa Cwb Kunming China Cwb La Esperanza Honduras Cwb Lijiang China Cwb Mexico City Mexico Cwb Mokhotlong Lesotho Cwb Mbabane Eswatini Cwb Nairobi Kenya Cwb Quetzaltenango Guatemala Cwb Salta Argentina Cwb Sa Pa Vietnam Cwb Shimla India Cwb Thimphu Bhutan Cwb Vereeniging South Africa Cwb bordering on Cwa Cwc Dry winter cold subtropical highland climate Edit Dry winter cold subtropical highland climates Cwc exist in high elevation areas adjacent to Cwb climates This climate is rare and is found mainly in isolated locations mostly in the Andes in Bolivia and Peru as well as in sparse mountain locations in Southeast Asia El Alto Bolivia Cwc bordering on ET Juliaca Peru Cwc bordering on ET La Paz Bolivia Cwc bordering on ET Potosi Bolivia Cwc bordering on ET Group D Continental microthermal climates EditMain article Continental climate Continental climate distribution The snowy city of Sapporo These climates have an average temperature above 10 C 50 F in their warmest months and the coldest month average below 0 C or 3 C 27 F as noted previously These usually occur in the interiors of continents and on their upper east coasts normally north of 40 N In the Southern Hemisphere group D climates are extremely rare due to the smaller land masses in the middle latitudes and the almost complete absence of land at 40 60 S existing only in some highland locations Dfa Dwa Dsa Hot summer continental climates Edit Main article Hot summer humid continental climate Dfa climates usually occur in the high 30s and low 40s latitudes with a qualifying average temperature in the warmest month of greater than 22 C 72 F In Europe these climates tend to be much drier than in North America Dsa exists at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean Csa climates 9 231 2 These climates exist only in the northern hemisphere because the southern hemisphere has no large landmasses isolated from the moderating effects of the sea within the middle latitudes Examples Almaty Kazakhstan Dfa Boston Massachusetts United States Dfa bordering on Cfa Bucharest Romania Dfa bordering on Cfa Cheonan South Korea Dfa bordering on Dwa Chicago Illinois United States Dfa Dnipro Ukraine Dfa bordering on Dfb Hamilton Ontario Canada Dfa bordering on Dfb Minneapolis Minnesota United States Dfa Rostov on Don Russia Dfa Sapporo Japan Dfa bordering on Dfb Toronto Ontario Canada Dfa bordering on Dfb Volgograd Russia Dfa Windsor Ontario Canada Dfa In eastern Asia Dwa climates extend further south due to the influence of the Siberian high pressure system which also causes winters there to be dry and summers can be very wet because of monsoon Circulation Examples Beijing China Dwa bordering on BSk Chuncheon Gangwon Province South Korea Dwa Harbin China Dwa Incheon South Korea Dwa bordering on Cwa North Platte Nebraska United States Dwa bordering on Dfa and BSk Pyongyang North Korea Dwa Seoul South Korea Dwa bordering on Cwa Shenyang China Dwa Dsa exists only at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean Csa climates Examples Arak Markazi Iran Dsa Bishkek Kyrgyzstan Dsa Hakkari Turkey Dsa Mus Turkey Dsa Salt Lake City Utah United States Dsa bordering on Csa Saqqez Kurdistan Iran Dsa Shymkent Kazakhstan Dsa bordering on Csa Dfb Dwb Dsb Warm summer continental or hemiboreal climates Edit Main article Warm summer humid continental climate Dfb climates are immediately poleward of hot summer continental climates generally in the high 40s and low 50s latitudes in North America and Asia and also extending to higher latitudes in central and eastern Europe and Russia between the maritime temperate and continental subarctic climates where it extends up to 65 degrees latitude in places 9 Examples Ardebil Iran Dfb bordering on BSk Ardahan Turkey Dfb Edmonton Alberta Canada Dfb Erzurum Turkey Dfb Fairbanks Alaska United States Dfb bordering on Dfc Helsinki Finland Dfb Karaganda Kazakhstan Dfb Kushiro Hokkaido Japan Dfb Kyiv Ukraine Dfb Lillehammer Norway Dfb Marquette Michigan United States Dfb Minsk Belarus Dfb Montreal Quebec Canada Dfb Moscow Russia Dfb Novosibirsk Russia Dfb Oslo Norway Dfb Ottawa Ontario Canada Dfb Portland Maine United States Dfb Pristina Kosovo Dfb bordering on Cfb and Cfa Riga Latvia Dfb Saint Petersburg Russia Dfb Stockholm Sweden Dfb Tallinn Estonia Dfb Vilnius Lithuania Dfb Warsaw Poland Dfb bordering on Cfb Like with all Group D climates Dwb climates only occur in the northern hemisphere Examples Baruunturuun Mongolia Dwb Calgary Alberta Canada Dwb bordering on Dfb and BSk Heihe China Dwb Yanji China Dwb Irkutsk Russia Dwb bordering on Dwc Pembina North Dakota United States Dwb bordering on Dfb Pyeongchang South Korea Dwb Vladivostok Russia Dwb Dsb arises from the same scenario as Dsa but at even higher altitudes or latitudes and chiefly in North America since the Mediterranean climates extend further poleward than in Eurasia Examples Dras India Dsb Flagstaff Arizona United States Dsb bordering on Csb Roghun Tajikistan Dsb South Lake Tahoe California United States Dsb bordering on Csb Sivas Turkey Dsb Spokane Washington United States Dsb bordering on Dsa and Csb Dfc Dwc Dsc Subarctic or boreal climates Edit Main article Subarctic climate Dfc Dsc and Dwc climates occur poleward of the other group D climates or at higher altitudes generally between the 55 to 65 North latitudes occasionally reaching up to the 70 N latitude 9 232 5 Examples Alta Norway Dfc Anadyr Russia Dfc Anchorage Alaska United States Dfc Arkhangelsk Russia Dfc Chita Russia Dwc Delta Junction Alaska United States Dwc Fox Park Wyoming United States Dfc Fraser Colorado United States Dfc Kangerlussuaq Greenland Dfc bordering on ET and BSk Kuujjuarapik Quebec Canada Dfc Labrador City Newfoundland and Labrador Canada Dfc Livigno Italy Dfc Lukla Nepal Dwc Lulea Sweden Dfc Mohe Heilongjiang China Dwc Norilsk Russia Dfc Nyurba Russia Dfc bordering on Dfd Oulu Finland Dfc Roros Norway Dfc Saint Pierre and Miquelon France Dfc bordering on Dfb St Moritz Grisons Switzerland Dfc Sarikamis Turkey Dfc Tampere Finland Dfc bordering on Dfb Thompson Manitoba Canada Dfc Tromso Norway Dfc Whitehorse Yukon Canada Dfc Yushu City Qinghai China Dwc Yellowknife Northwest Territories Canada Dfc Soldotna Alaska Dsc Dfd Dwd Dsd Subarctic or boreal climates with severe winters Edit Places with this climate have severe winters with the temperature in their coldest month lower than 38 C These climates occur only in eastern Siberia The names of some of the places with this climate have become veritable synonyms for the extreme severe winter cold 22 Examples Allakh Yun Sakha Republic Russia Dwd Delyankir Sakha Republic Russia Dwd Okhotsky Perevoz Sakha Republic Russia Dfd Oymyakon Sakha Republic Russia Dwd Verkhoyansk Sakha Republic Russia Dfd Khonuu Sakha Republic Russia Dfd Group E Polar climates Edit Polar climate distribution In the Koppen climate system polar climates are defined as the warmest temperature of any month being below 10 C 50 F Polar climates are further divided into two types tundra climates and icecap climates ET Tundra climate Edit Tundra climate ET Warmest month has an average temperature between 0 and 10 C These climates occur on the northern edges of the North American and Eurasian land masses generally north of 70 N although they may be found farther south depending on local conditions and on nearby islands ET climates are also found on some islands near the Antarctic Convergence and at high elevations outside the polar regions above the tree line Examples Alert Nunavut Canada ET bordering on EF Ben Nevis Scotland United Kingdom ET Cairn Gorm Scotland United Kingdom ET Campbell Island New Zealand ET Crozet Islands ET Dikson Island Russia ET Esperanza Base Antarctica ET Finse Norway ET Ilulissat Greenland ET Inukjuak Quebec Canada ET bordering on Dfc Iqaluit Nunavut Canada ET Ittoqqortoormiit Greenland ET Jungfraujoch Switzerland ET Kasprowy Wierch Poland ET Kerguelen Islands ET Macquarie Island Australia ET Mount Fuji Japan ET Mount Rainier slopes Washington United States ET Mount Washington New Hampshire United States ET Mount Wellington Tasmania Australia ET Mys Shmidta Russia ET Murghab Tajikistan ET Mykines Faroe Islands ET bordering on Cfc Nagqu China ET bordering on Dwc Novaya Zemlya Arkhangelsk Oblast Russia ET Nuuk Greenland ET Prince Edwards Islands ET Puno Peru ET bordering on Cwc Stanley Falkland Islands ET bordering on Cfc Svalbard Norway ET Yu Shan Taiwan ET Zugspitze Bavaria Germany ET EF Ice cap climate Edit Ice cap climate EF This climate is dominant in Antarctica inner Greenland and summits of many high mountains even at lower latitudes Monthly average temperatures never exceed 0 C 32 F Examples Aconcagua Chile Argentina EF Amundsen Scott Station Antarctica EF Byrd Station Antarctica EF Concordia Station Antarctica EF Dome Fuji Antarctica EF Denali Alaska United States EFH Ismoil Somoni Peak Tajikistan EF Jengish Chokusu China Kyrgyzstan EF Kangchenjunga India Nepal EF K2 China Pakistan EF Lhotse Nepal EFH Makalu Nepal China EF McMurdo Station Antarctica EF Mount Ararat Turkey EF Mount Everest China Nepal EF Mount Logan Canada EF Mount Rainier summit Washington United States EF Plateau Station Antarctica EF Scott Base Antarctica EF Showa Station Antarctica EF Summit Camp Greenland EF Ushakov Island Russia EF Vostok Station Antarctica EF Ecological significance EditBiomass Edit The Koppen climate classification is based on the empirical relationship between climate and vegetation This classification provides an efficient way to describe climatic conditions defined by temperature and precipitation and their seasonality with a single metric Because climatic conditions identified by the Koppen classification are ecologically relevant it has been widely used to map the geographic distribution of long term climate and associated ecosystem conditions 23 Climate change Edit Over recent years there has been an increasing interest in using the classification to identify changes in climate and potential changes in vegetation over time 12 The most important ecological significance of the Koppen climate classification is that it helps to predict the dominant vegetation type based on the climatic data and vice versa 24 In 2015 a Nanjing University paper published in Scientific Reports analyzing climate classifications found that between 1950 and 2010 approximately 5 7 of all land area worldwide had moved from wetter and colder classifications to drier and hotter classifications The authors also found that the change cannot be explained as natural variations but are driven by anthropogenic factors 25 A 2018 Nature study provides detailed maps for present and future Koppen Geiger climate classification maps at 1 km resolution 26 Other Koppen climate maps EditAll maps use the 0 C or gt 3 C definition for temperate climates the 18 C or gt 0 C or gt 3 C annual mean temperature threshold to distinguish between hot and cold dry climates and solely 18 C for tropical climates 1 North America Europe Russia Central Asia East Asia South America Africa Western Asia South Asia Southeast Asia Melanesia Oceania Australia New ZealandSee also EditTrewartha climate classification Holdridge life zones climate classification by three dimensions precipitation humidity and potential evapotranspiration ratio Hardiness zoneReferences Edit a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Beck Hylke E Zimmermann Niklaus E McVicar Tim R Vergopolan Noemi Berg Alexis Wood Eric F 30 October 2018 Present and future Koppen Geiger climate classification maps at 1 km resolution Scientific Data 5 180214 Bibcode 2018NatSD 580214B doi 10 1038 sdata 2018 214 ISSN 2052 4463 PMC 6207062 PMID 30375988 Koppen Wladimir 1884 Translated by Volken E Bronnimann S Die Warmezonen der Erde nach der Dauer der heissen gemassigten und kalten Zeit und nach der Wirkung der Warme auf die organische Welt betrachtet The thermal zones of the earth according to the duration of hot moderate and cold periods and to the impact of heat on the organic world Meteorologische Zeitschrift published 2011 20 3 351 360 Bibcode 2011MetZe 20 351K doi 10 1127 0941 2948 2011 105 S2CID 209855204 Archived from the original on 2016 09 08 Retrieved 2016 09 02 via ingentaconnect com content schweiz mz 2011 00000020 00000003 art00009 Rubel F Kottek M 2011 Comments on The thermal zones of the Earth by Wladimir Koppen 1884 Meteorologische Zeitschrift 20 3 361 365 Bibcode 2011MetZe 20 361R doi 10 1127 0941 2948 2011 0258 Koppen Wladimir 1918 Klassification der Klimate nach Temperatur Niederschlag and Jahreslauf Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen Vol 64 pp 193 203 243 248 via koeppen geiger Vu Wien ac at Koeppen htm Koppen Wladimir 1936 C In Koppen Wladimir Geiger publisher Rudolf eds Das geographische System der Klimate The geographic system of climates PDF Handbuch der Klimatologie Vol 1 Berlin Borntraeger Archived PDF from the original on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2016 09 02 Geiger Rudolf 1954 Klassifikation der Klimate nach W Koppen Classification of climates after W Koppen Landolt Bornstein Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik Chemie Astronomie Geophysik und Technik alte Serie Berlin Springer Vol 3 pp 603 607 Geiger Rudolf 1961 Uberarbeitete Neuausgabe von Geiger R Koppen Geiger Klima der Erde Wandkarte 1 16 Mill Klett Perthes Gotha a b c d e f g Kottek Markus Grieser Jurgen Beck Christoph Rudolf Bruno Rubel Franz 2006 World Map of the Koppen Geiger climate classification updated PDF Meteorologische Zeitschrift 15 3 259 263 Bibcode 2006MetZe 15 259K doi 10 1127 0941 2948 2006 0130 a b c d e f g h i j k l m McKnight Tom L Hess Darrel 2000 Climate Zones and Types Physical Geography A Landscape Appreciation Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0 13 020263 5 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Peel M C Finlayson B L amp McMahon T A 2007 Updated world map of the Koppen Geiger climate classification PDF Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 11 5 1633 1644 Bibcode 2007HESS 11 1633P doi 10 5194 Hess 11 1633 2007 ISSN 1027 5606 Koppen climate classification climatology Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 2017 08 04 Retrieved 2017 08 04 a b Chen Hans Chen Deliang Koppen climate classification hanschen org Archived from the original on 2017 08 14 Retrieved 2017 08 04 a b Cereceda P Larrain H osses P Farias M Egana I 2008 The climate of the coast and fog zone in the Tarapaca Region Atacama Desert Chile Atmospheric Research 87 3 4 301 311 Bibcode 2008AtmRe 87 301C doi 10 1016 j atmosres 2007 11 011 hdl 10533 139314 a b CLASIFICACIoN CLIMATICA DE KOPPEN in Spanish Universidad de Chile Archived from the original on 22 January 2018 Retrieved 21 January 2018 a b Inzunza Juan Capitulo 15 Climas de Chile PDF Meteorologia Descriptiva y Aplicaciones en Chile in Spanish p 427 Archived from the original PDF on 22 January 2018 Retrieved 22 January 2018 Climatologie by Pierre Estienne and Alain Godard Editions Armand Colin ISBN 2 200 31042 0 CHAPITRE XVI 1 Les climats equatoriaux et subequatoriaux 2 Les climats tropicaux 3 Les climats d alize 4 Les climats de montagne LES CLIMATS DE LA ZONE INTERTROPICALE LES VARIETES pages 308 323 Linacre Edward Geerts Bart 1997 Climates and Weather Explained London Routledge p 379 ISBN 978 0 415 12519 2 JetStream Max Addition Koppen Geiger Climate Subdivisions National Weather Service Archived from the original on 24 December 2018 Retrieved 24 December 2018 Critchfield H J 1983 Criteria for classification of major climatic types in modified Koppen system 4 ed University of Idaho Archived from the original on 2009 09 30 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Atlas Agroclimatico de Chile Estado Actual y Tendencias del Clima Tomo I Regiones de Arica Y Parinacota Tarapaca y Antofagasta in Spanish Universidad de Chile 2017 Archived from the original on 22 December 2018 Retrieved 9 December 2018 George Melvin R Mediterranean Climate UCRangelands University of California Archived from the original on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2015 01 26 Climate Types Types of Climate Climatology Geography Notes 2017 08 09 Retrieved 2022 06 17 Chen D Chen H W 2013 Using the Koppen classification to quantify climate variation and change An example for 1901 2010 PDF Environmental Development 6 69 79 doi 10 1016 j envdev 2013 03 007 Archived PDF from the original on 2014 10 31 Retrieved 2014 10 29 Critchfield Howard J 1983 General Climatology 4th ed New Delhi Prentice Hall pp 154 161 ISBN 978 81 203 0476 5 Chan D and Wu Q 2015 Significant anthropogenic induced changes of climate classes since 1950 Scientific Reports 5 13487 13487 Bibcode 2015NatSR 513487C doi 10 1038 srep13487 PMC 4551970 PMID 26316255 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint uses authors parameter link Beck Hylke E Zimmermann Niklaus E McVicar Tim R Vergopolan Noemi Berg Alexis Wood Eric F 2018 10 30 Present and future Koppen Geiger climate classification maps at 1 km resolution Scientific Data 5 1 180214 Bibcode 2018NatSD 580214B doi 10 1038 sdata 2018 214 ISSN 2052 4463 PMC 6207062 PMID 30375988 S2CID 53111021 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Koppen Geiger World Map of the Koppen Geiger climate classification for the period 1951 2000 archived 6 September 2010 Global climate maps using Koppen classification FAO 1999 Climate records Edit IPCC Data Distribution Center archived Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Koppen climate classification amp oldid 1130832501, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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