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Kham

Kham (Tibetan: ཁམས་, Wylie: khams; Chinese: ; pinyin: Kāng) is one of the three traditional Tibetan regions, the others being Amdo in the northeast, and Ü-Tsang in central Tibet. The original residents of Kham are called Khampas (Tibetan: ཁམས་པ་, Wylie: khams pa), and were governed locally by chieftains and monasteries. Kham presently covers a land area distributed between five regions in China, most of it in Tibet Autonomous Region and Sichuan, with smaller portions located within Qinghai, Gansu and Yunnan provinces.

Kham province in Tibet

Densely forested with grass plains, its convergence of six valleys and four rivers supported independent Kham polities of Tibetan warrior kingdoms together with Tibetan Buddhist monastic centers.[1] The early trading route between Central Tibet and China traveled through Kham,[2] and Kham is said to be the inspiration for Shangri-La in James Hilton's novel.[3]

Settled as Tibet's eastern frontier in the 7th century, King Songtsen Gampo built temples along its eastern border. In 1939, an eastern area of Kham was officially established as Xikang Province of China.[4]

Geography edit

 
Daxue Mountains
 
Rivers of Kham

Kham has a rugged terrain characterized by mountain ridges and gorges running from northwest to southeast, and collectively known as the Hengduan Mountains. Numerous rivers, including the Mekong, Yangtze, Yalong River, and the Salween River flow through Kham.

Under the modern administrative division of China, Kham includes a total of 50 contemporary counties, which have been incorporated into the Chinese provinces of Sichuan (16 counties), Yunnan (three counties), and Qinghai (6 counties) as well as the eastern portion of the Tibet Autonomous Region (25 counties).

Ethnic groups edit

 
Khampas, the inhabitants of Kham

The people of Kham, the Khampas, are reputed warriors renowned for their marksmanship and horsemanship.[5] References state many Khampas in the Hor States include mention of their Mongolian heritage.[3]

There are significant differences in traditions and beliefs—even physical appearance—between the peoples of Kham and Lhasa. Most of Kham's residents speak Khams Tibetan while at least one-third of the residents are speakers of Qiangic languages, a family of twelve distinct but interrelated languages that are not closely related to Khams Tibetan.[citation needed]

As a frontier region, Kham integrated and "Tibetanized" early Mongolian and Chinese populations.[1] After Güshri Khan's invasion of Kham in 1639, Mongolian people and Amdo's tribal people resettled to the region.[3]

The Khampas are known for their great height. Khampa males are on average 180 cm (5 ft 11 in).[6][7]

History edit

7th - 10th centuries edit

The Pugyal Dynasty (or Yarlung) of the Tibetan Empire sent troops east from Lhasa to the reaches of the Tibetan Plateau, where they interacted with local cultures and languages to establish eastern Tibet, or Do Kham ('Do', the convergence of rivers and valleys; 'Kham', frontier).[1] Kham was traditionally referred to as Chushi Gangdruk, i.e. 'The Four Rivers and Six Ranges' and 'The Four Great Valleys'.[1] Responsible for introducing Buddhism to Tibet, King Songtsen Gampo (reign 629–649) built twelve 'border-taming' temples in Kham, and his 4th wife Wencheng Gongzhu is credited with commissioning Buddhist structures while traveling through Kham in 640–641, from her home in China to Central Tibet.[1]

During the Imperial era, both Nyingma school and Bon monasteries were located, especially in Nyarong Valley, among pastoral and agricultural-based polities ruled by local chieftains, polities which included merchant as well as Mongol and Chinese populations.[1] Notable Tibetan Buddhist art from this era, dating from 804 or 816, includes carved stone statues of Buddha Vairocana.[1]

Following a power struggle in the mid-9th century, Tibet separated into independent kingdoms.[8]

13th to 17th centuries edit

Kham was not controlled by a single king and remained a patchwork of kingdoms, tribes, and chiefdoms whose bases of authority were constantly shifting. A dual system of secular and Buddhist polities continued.[3] In 1270, the Sakya school's lama Tonstul, a student of Sakya Pandita, established a monastery in Kham while both Kagyu and Sakya monasteries were located in the northern plains, including Gonjo and Lingtsang,[1] which accompanied the earlier Nyingma and Bon monasteries of Kham.

In 1639, Güshri Khan, a supporter of the Dalai Lama, invaded with Mongolian troops and defeated the powerful King of Beri in Kham.[3] In 1655, Ngawang Phuntsok, a student of the Dalai Lama, founded Gonsar Monastery, the first of the 13 Gelug monasteries in the Hor States, with the support of the kingdom of Degé.[3] By 1677, many Gelug monasteries had been built when the 5th Dalai Lama finalized Kham's Sino-Tibetan border location between China and a Tibet then reunified in the Khoshut Khanate, resulting in Kham being ascribed to Tibet's authority.[1]

The major independent polities included the Chakla, Degé, the Lingtsang, Nangchen and the Lhatok. Other important polities included Chamdo, Batang, Mili, and the Hor States.

18th century edit

 
Boundary pillar between Tibet and China at Bum La (Ningching Shan), west of Batang (Teichman, 1922)

In 1717, the Mongol Dzungar Khanate invaded Tibet and other Asian regions. The Qing Chinese army likewise invaded and defeated the Dzungars. This led to the redrawing of the Sino-Tibetan boundary of 1677, which had followed the edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The frontier line changed in either 1725 or 1726 to follow the Dri River (Jinsha River, Upper Yangtze), while the Kham region on the eastern bank became Qing domain.[1] There, hereditary chieftains were bestowed honorific titles of tusi, and obligated to fight alongside the Qing army in other Kham battles between chieftains.[1]

Earlier in 1724, an area of Qinghai (Kokonor) was established within Do Kham. The eastern Kham Qing domain was later incorporated into neighboring Chinese provinces.[9][verification needed]

19th century edit

 
Kham men with western tourist

In 1837, a minor chieftain Gompo Namgyal, of Nyarong in eastern Kham, began expanding his control regionally and launched offensives against the Hor States, Litang, Degé, the Chakla and Batang, becoming the paramount power in the region.[1][3] China sent troops in against Namgyal which were defeated in 1849,[4] and additional troops were not dispatched. Chinese military posts were present along the trading route, but "did not have any authority over the native chiefs".[3] By 1862, Namgyal blocked trade routes from China to Central Tibet, and sent troops into China.[1]

Local chieftains had appealed to both the Lhasa and the Qing Manchu governments for help against Namgyal. The Tibetan authorities sent an army in 1863, and defeated Namgyal then killed him at his Nyarong fort by 1865. Central Tibet reasserted its authority over the northern parts of Kham and established the Office of the Tibetan High Commissioner to govern.[1][4] Tibet also reclaimed Nyarong, Degé and the Hor States north of Nyarong. China recalled their forces.[4] It appears to have been accepted by the Manchu Tongzhi Emperor.[10][verification needed]

Then in 1896, the Qing Governor of Sichuan attempted to gain control of Nyarong valley during a military attack. After his defeat, the Qing agreed to the withdrawal of Chinese forces and the "territory was returned to the direct rule of Lhasa".[11]

Early 20th century edit

 
Monastery in Kham

From 1904 to 1911, China decided to reassert its control over the previously re-ceded section of Kham, and to push further into the region[1] soon after the invasion of Tibet by the British army under Francis Younghusband in 1904.[11] The British invasion alarmed the Qing rulers in China, and they sent Fengquan (鳳全) to Kham to initiate land reforms and reduce the numbers of monks.[4] An anti-foreigner and anti-Qing uprising in Batang led to Fengquan's death, while Chinese fields were burned.[1]

The Qing then undertook punitive campaigns in Kham[4] under Manchu army commander Zhao Erfeng, also the Governor of Xining, where he earned the nickname of "the Butcher of Kham".[11] In 1905 or 1908[12][13] Zhao began executing monks[3] and destroying many monasteries in Kham and Amdo, implementing an early "sinicization" of the region:[14]

He abolished the powers of the Tibetan local leaders and appointed Chinese magistrates in their places. He introduced new laws that limited the number of lamas and deprived monasteries of their temporal power and inaugurated schemes for having the land cultivated by Chinese immigrants. Zhao's methods in eastern Tibet uncannily prefigured the Communist policies nearly half a century later. They were aimed at the extermination of the Tibetan clergy, the assimilation of territory and repopulation of the Tibetan plateaus with poor peasants from Sichuan. Like the later Chinese conquerors, Zhao's men looted and destroyed Tibetan monasteries, melted down religious images and tore up sacred texts to use to line the soles of their boots and, as the Communists were also to do later, Zhao Erfeng worked out a comprehensive scheme for the redevelopment of Tibet that covered military training reclamation work, secular education, trade and administration.[15]

After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Zhao was stripped of his post and executed by the revolutionary commander Yin Changheng.

A year before the collapse of the Qing, the Beijing-appointed amban Zhong Ying invaded Lhasa with the Chinese army in February 1910[11] in order to gain control of Tibet and establish direct Chinese rule.[16] The 13th Dalai Lama escaped to British India, and returned before China surrendered via a letter from the amban to the Dalai Lama in the summer of 1912. On 13 February 1913, the Dalai Lama declared Tibet an independent nation, and announced the end of the historic "priest-patron" relationship between Tibet and China.[11] The amban and Chinese army were expelled, while other Chinese populations were given three years to depart.

By late 1913, Kham and Amdo remained largely occupied by China. Tibet proposed re-establishing the border between Tibet and China at the Dri River during the Simla Conference with Britain and China, while Britain countered with another proposal which was initialed but not ratified.

In 1917, the Tibetan army defeated China in battles at Chamdo, west of the Dri River, which were halted after Britain refused to sell Tibet additional armements.[11]

Tibetan independence and Republic of China edit

 
ROC's control in Kham: Light blue line on the west represents the boundary in 1912–1917, after which the ROC was pushed back to the brown line during 1918–1932. By 1945, it arrived at the dotted red line. The dark blue was the Simla Convention boundary that ROC turned down.
 
Tibetan government's Kalon Lama Jampa Tendar, Governor General of Kham

The official position of the British Government was it would not intervene between China and Tibet and would only recognize the de facto government of China within Tibet at this time.[17] In his history of Tibet, Bell wrote that "the Tibetans were abandoned to Chinese aggression, an aggression for which the British Military Expedition to Lhasa and subsequent retreat [and consequent power vacuum within Tibet] were primarily responsible".[17]

In 1932, an agreement signed between Chinese warlord Liu Wenhui and Tibetan forces formalized the partition of Kham into two regions: Eastern Kham, which was administered by Chinese forces, and Western Kham, which was administered by Tibet. Eastern Kham subsequently became the actual area of control of China's Xikang province. The border between eastern and western Kham is the Upper Yangtze – Dri Chu in Tibetan and Jinsha Jiang respectively, in Chinese.

Tenpay Gyaltsan, a Khampa who was 5 years old, was selected as the fifth Jamyang Hutuktu in 1921.[18]

The Kham Pandatsang family led the 1934 Khamba rebellion against the Tibetan government in Lhasa. The Kuomintang reached out to the Khampas, whose relationship with the Dalai Lama's government in Lhasa were deteriorating badly. The Khampa revolutionary leader Pandatsang Rapga founded the Tibet Improvement Party to overthrow the Tibetan government and establish a Tibetan Republic as part of China. In addition to using the Khampa's against the Tibetan Government in Lhasa, the Chinese Kuomintang also used them against the Communists during the Chinese Civil War.

The Kuomintang formulated a plan where three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the Panchen Lama to oppose the Communists.[19]

Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80,000 troops in Sichuan, Qinghai, and Tibet. They hoped to use them against the Communist army.[20]

The Chinese Kuomintang (Nationalists) also enlisted Khampas to join their military.[21]

The Chinese Kuomintang also sought the Khampas help in defending Sichuan from Japan during World War 2, since the temporary capital was located there.[22] A Khampa member of the Mongolian Tibetan Academy was Han Jiaxiang.[23]

300 "Khampa bandits" were enlisted into the Kuomintang Consolatory Commission military in Sichuan, where they were part of the effort of the central government of China to penetrated and destabilize the local Han warlords such as Liu Wenhui. The Chinese government sought to exercise full control over frontier areas against the warlords. The Consoltary Commission forces were used to battle the Communist Red Army but were defeated when their religious leader was captured by Communist forces.[24]

The Republic of China government also used Khampa traders to operate secret transports between different places.[25]

Kesang Tsering was sent by the Chinese to Batang to take control of Xikang, where he formed a local government. He was spread there for the purpose of propagating the Three People's Principle to the Khampa.[26]

People's Republic of China edit

In 1950, following the defeat of the Kuomintang rulers of China by communist forces in the Chinese Civil War, the People's Liberation Army invaded western Kham. Western Kham was then set up as a separate Qamdo Territory[citation needed], then merged into Tibet Autonomous Region in 1965. Meanwhile, Xikang, comprising eastern Kham, was merged into Sichuan in 1955. The border between Sichuan and Tibet Autonomous Region has remained at the Yangtze River.

Notable people edit

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Jann Ronis, "An Overview of Kham (Eastern Tibet) Historical Polities", The University of Virginia
  2. ^ "Kham", http://mystictibettours.com/about-tibet/
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Irina Garri, "The rise of the Five Hor States of Northern Kham. Religion and politics in the Sino-Tibetan borderlands", Études mongoles et sibériennes, centrasiatiques et tibétaines, No 51, 2020, posted online 09 December 2020
  4. ^ a b c d e f Yudru Tsomu, "Taming the Khampas: The Republican Construction of Eastern Tibet" Modern China Journal, Vol. 39, No. 3 (May 2013), pp. 319–344
  5. ^ "Gallery: Khampa Warriors". Heinrich Harrer Limited Edition Portfolio. Retrieved 10 February 2020.
  6. ^ Subba, Tanka Bahadur (1999). Politics of Culture: A Study of Three Kirata Communities in the Eastern Himalayas. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-81-250-1693-9.
  7. ^ Peissel, Michel (1967). Mustang: A Lost Tibetan Kingdom. Book Faith India. ISBN 978-81-7303-002-4.
  8. ^ Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). Tibet and its History. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, p. 32. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 (pbk) "Eventually the rivalries of the nobles led to a split in the royal family itself. Lang Darma, the last of Song-tsen Gampo's line to rule over all Tibet, died in 842 after a brief reign during which he persecuted Buddhism almost to extinction. On his death two young children were set up as claimants to the throne, each with support from a different party among the nobility. The Tibetan Kingdom then broke up into a number of disunited princedoms and, for the most part, temporarily deserted the Buddhist faith."
  9. ^ Stein, R. A. (1972) Tibetan Civilization; translated by J. E. Stapleton Driver, p. 88. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 (paper).
  10. ^ "What is Tibet? Fact and Fancy". Retrieved 2010-03-02.
  11. ^ a b c d e f Tsering Shakya, "The Thirteenth Dalai Lama, Tubten Gyatso" Treasury of Lives, accessed May 11, 2021
  12. ^ "Ligne MacMahon." 2013-06-16 at the Wayback Machine
  13. ^ Fossier, Astrid (2004). "L'Inde des britanniques à Nehru : un acteur clé du conflit sino-tibétain". Paris.
  14. ^ "Tibetan Parliamentary & Policy Research Centre".
  15. ^ Hilton, Isabel. (1999). The Search for the Panchen Lama. Viking. Reprint: Penguin Books. (2000), p. 115. ISBN 0-14-024670-3.
  16. ^ Smith 1996, p. 175
  17. ^ a b Bell 1924, p. 113
  18. ^ Lin 2010, p. 61: "... and established a military garrison.35 In 1921, when five-year-old Khampa Tibetan Tenpay Gyaltsan (aka Huang Zhengguang) was identified and enthroned as the new fifth Jamyang Hutuktu, Labrang remained under the Ma family's control."
  19. ^ Lin 2010, p. 117: "A simultaneous proposal suggested that, with the support of the new Panchen Lama and his entourage, at least three army divisions of the anti-Communist Khampa Tibetans could be mustered in southwest China."
  20. ^ Lin 2010, p. xxi: "... (tusi) from the Sichuan-Qinghai border; and Su Yonghe, a Khampa native-chieftain from Nagchuka on the Qinghai- Tibetan border. According to Nationalist intelligence reports, these leaders altogether commanded about 80000 irregulars."
  21. ^ Lin 2010, p. 60: "... the reorganization of local militia, the recruitment of Khampa aborigines into the Nationalist armies, and the strengthening of the taxation and judicial systems.34 Xikang, however, was not the sole focus of Nationalist frontier"
  22. ^ Lin 2010, p. 121: "Qinghai and Gansu, who threatened to ally with the Japanese at the early stage of the war; and to control Xikang and the local Khampa Tibetans would be to protect the whole of Sichuan, the wartime headquarters of the Nationalists."
  23. ^ Lin 2010, p. 33: "His reports and telegrams back to Nanking served as perhaps the most reliable sources of information for Nanking before its final collapse 1949. Han Jiaxiang, a native Khampa, was a senior at the Mongolian and Tibetan Academy in... "
  24. ^ Lin 2010, p. 52: "A force of about 300 soldiers was organized and augmented by recruiting local Khampa bandits into the army. The relationship between the Consolatory Commission and Liu Wenhui seriously deteriorated in early 1936, when the Norla Hutuktu..."
  25. ^ Lin 2010, p. 81: "A new pack-transport firm, operated by Khampa-Tibetan traders but covertly backed by Chongqing, was accordingly set up in Dartsendo to manage the route.35 A new branch of the Bank of China was also opened in Kalimpong in northeast India"
  26. ^ Lin 2010, p. 27: "...area and spreading Sun Yat-sen's Three People's Principle among the Tibetan and Khampa minorities, Kesang Tsering set up a field headquarters in Batang (Pa'an). There he appointed his own Xikang provincial government staff and issued an..."

Sources edit

Further reading edit

  • Andreas Gruschke: The Cultural Monuments of Tibet’s Outer Provinces: Kham, 3 vols. (2 published so far), White Lotus Press, Bangkok 2004. ISBN 974-480-049-6
  • Andrew Forbes and David Henley, China's Ancient Tea Horse Road. (Cognoscenti Books, 2011), ISBN 9781300464860
  • Augusta Molnar, The Kham Magar Women of Thabang (Kathmandu, Nepal: Centre for Economic Development and Administration, Tribhuvan University, 1981).
  • Birgit van de Wijer, Tibet's Forgotten Heroes: The Story of Tibet's Armed Resistance Against China, 1st ed. (Amberley Publishing Limited, 2010), ISBN 9781848689855
  • David Gellne, Resistance and The State: Nepalese Experiences (New York: Berghah Books, 2007), ISBN 9781845452162
  • David Molk, Lion of Siddhas: The Life and Teachings of Padampa Sangye (Shambhala, 2008), ISBN 9781559398404
  • Douglas Wissing, Pioneer in Tibet: The Life and Perils of Dr. Albert Shelton (St. Martin's Press, 2015), ISBN 9781466892248
  • Edward A. Parmee, D.T. Campbell and R.A. LeVine, Kham and Amdo of Tibet (Human Relations Area Files, 1972).
  • George Bogle and Thomas Manning, Narratives of The Mission of George Bogle To Tibet: and of The Journey of Thomas Manning To Lhasa (Cambridge University Press, 2010), ISBN 9781108022552
  • Kurtis R Schaeffer, Sources of Tibetan Tradition (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013), ISBN 9780231509787
  • Michael Buckley, Tibet (The Bradt Travel Guide, 2012), ISBN 9781841623825
  • Pamela Logan: Tibetan Rescue. The Extraordinary Quest to Save the Sacred Art Treasures of Tibet (Tuttle Publishing 2002), ISBN 9780804834216
  • Thomas Laird: The Story of Tibet: Conversation With the Dalai Lama, Grove Press, New York, ISBN 978-0-8021-1827-1
  • Tsepon Wangchuk Dedon Shakabpa, One Hundred Thousand Moons: An Advanced Political History of Tibet (Brill, 2009), ISBN 9789004177321
  • Tsering Shakya, The Dragon in the Land of Snows. A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947 (London: Columbia University Press, 1999), ISBN 0-14-019615-3
  • Xiuyu Wang, China's Last Imperial Frontier: Late Qing Expansion in Sichuan's Tibetan Borderlands, (Lexington Books, 2011), ISBN 9780739168097
  • Yudru Tsomu, The Rise of Gönpo Namgyel in Kham: The Blind Warrior of Nyarong. (Lexington Books, 2014), ISBN 9780739177938

External links edit

  • , magazine article about traveling overland across Kham

30°36′6.01″N 96°50′29.59″E / 30.6016694°N 96.8415528°E / 30.6016694; 96.8415528

kham, other, uses, disambiguation, tibetan, ཁམས, wylie, khams, chinese, pinyin, kāng, three, traditional, tibetan, regions, others, being, amdo, northeast, tsang, central, tibet, original, residents, called, tibetan, ཁམས, wylie, khams, were, governed, locally,. For other uses see Kham disambiguation Kham Tibetan ཁམས Wylie khams Chinese 康 pinyin Kang is one of the three traditional Tibetan regions the others being Amdo in the northeast and U Tsang in central Tibet The original residents of Kham are called Khampas Tibetan ཁམས པ Wylie khams pa and were governed locally by chieftains and monasteries Kham presently covers a land area distributed between five regions in China most of it in Tibet Autonomous Region and Sichuan with smaller portions located within Qinghai Gansu and Yunnan provinces Kham province in TibetDensely forested with grass plains its convergence of six valleys and four rivers supported independent Kham polities of Tibetan warrior kingdoms together with Tibetan Buddhist monastic centers 1 The early trading route between Central Tibet and China traveled through Kham 2 and Kham is said to be the inspiration for Shangri La in James Hilton s novel 3 Settled as Tibet s eastern frontier in the 7th century King Songtsen Gampo built temples along its eastern border In 1939 an eastern area of Kham was officially established as Xikang Province of China 4 Contents 1 Geography 2 Ethnic groups 3 History 3 1 7th 10th centuries 3 2 13th to 17th centuries 3 3 18th century 3 4 19th century 3 5 Early 20th century 3 6 Tibetan independence and Republic of China 3 7 People s Republic of China 4 Notable people 5 See also 6 References 6 1 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External linksGeography edit nbsp Daxue Mountains nbsp Rivers of KhamKham has a rugged terrain characterized by mountain ridges and gorges running from northwest to southeast and collectively known as the Hengduan Mountains Numerous rivers including the Mekong Yangtze Yalong River and the Salween River flow through Kham Under the modern administrative division of China Kham includes a total of 50 contemporary counties which have been incorporated into the Chinese provinces of Sichuan 16 counties Yunnan three counties and Qinghai 6 counties as well as the eastern portion of the Tibet Autonomous Region 25 counties Ethnic groups edit nbsp Khampas the inhabitants of KhamThe people of Kham the Khampas are reputed warriors renowned for their marksmanship and horsemanship 5 References state many Khampas in the Hor States include mention of their Mongolian heritage 3 There are significant differences in traditions and beliefs even physical appearance between the peoples of Kham and Lhasa Most of Kham s residents speak Khams Tibetan while at least one third of the residents are speakers of Qiangic languages a family of twelve distinct but interrelated languages that are not closely related to Khams Tibetan citation needed As a frontier region Kham integrated and Tibetanized early Mongolian and Chinese populations 1 After Gushri Khan s invasion of Kham in 1639 Mongolian people and Amdo s tribal people resettled to the region 3 The Khampas are known for their great height Khampa males are on average 180 cm 5 ft 11 in 6 7 History edit7th 10th centuries edit The Pugyal Dynasty or Yarlung of the Tibetan Empire sent troops east from Lhasa to the reaches of the Tibetan Plateau where they interacted with local cultures and languages to establish eastern Tibet or Do Kham Do the convergence of rivers and valleys Kham frontier 1 Kham was traditionally referred to as Chushi Gangdruk i e The Four Rivers and Six Ranges and The Four Great Valleys 1 Responsible for introducing Buddhism to Tibet King Songtsen Gampo reign 629 649 built twelve border taming temples in Kham and his 4th wife Wencheng Gongzhu is credited with commissioning Buddhist structures while traveling through Kham in 640 641 from her home in China to Central Tibet 1 During the Imperial era both Nyingma school and Bon monasteries were located especially in Nyarong Valley among pastoral and agricultural based polities ruled by local chieftains polities which included merchant as well as Mongol and Chinese populations 1 Notable Tibetan Buddhist art from this era dating from 804 or 816 includes carved stone statues of Buddha Vairocana 1 Following a power struggle in the mid 9th century Tibet separated into independent kingdoms 8 13th to 17th centuries edit Kham was not controlled by a single king and remained a patchwork of kingdoms tribes and chiefdoms whose bases of authority were constantly shifting A dual system of secular and Buddhist polities continued 3 In 1270 the Sakya school s lama Tonstul a student of Sakya Pandita established a monastery in Kham while both Kagyu and Sakya monasteries were located in the northern plains including Gonjo and Lingtsang 1 which accompanied the earlier Nyingma and Bon monasteries of Kham In 1639 Gushri Khan a supporter of the Dalai Lama invaded with Mongolian troops and defeated the powerful King of Beri in Kham 3 In 1655 Ngawang Phuntsok a student of the Dalai Lama founded Gonsar Monastery the first of the 13 Gelug monasteries in the Hor States with the support of the kingdom of Dege 3 By 1677 many Gelug monasteries had been built when the 5th Dalai Lama finalized Kham s Sino Tibetan border location between China and a Tibet then reunified in the Khoshut Khanate resulting in Kham being ascribed to Tibet s authority 1 The major independent polities included the Chakla Dege the Lingtsang Nangchen and the Lhatok Other important polities included Chamdo Batang Mili and the Hor States 18th century edit nbsp Boundary pillar between Tibet and China at Bum La Ningching Shan west of Batang Teichman 1922 In 1717 the Mongol Dzungar Khanate invaded Tibet and other Asian regions The Qing Chinese army likewise invaded and defeated the Dzungars This led to the redrawing of the Sino Tibetan boundary of 1677 which had followed the edge of the Tibetan Plateau The frontier line changed in either 1725 or 1726 to follow the Dri River Jinsha River Upper Yangtze while the Kham region on the eastern bank became Qing domain 1 There hereditary chieftains were bestowed honorific titles of tusi and obligated to fight alongside the Qing army in other Kham battles between chieftains 1 Earlier in 1724 an area of Qinghai Kokonor was established within Do Kham The eastern Kham Qing domain was later incorporated into neighboring Chinese provinces 9 verification needed 19th century edit nbsp Kham men with western touristIn 1837 a minor chieftain Gompo Namgyal of Nyarong in eastern Kham began expanding his control regionally and launched offensives against the Hor States Litang Dege the Chakla and Batang becoming the paramount power in the region 1 3 China sent troops in against Namgyal which were defeated in 1849 4 and additional troops were not dispatched Chinese military posts were present along the trading route but did not have any authority over the native chiefs 3 By 1862 Namgyal blocked trade routes from China to Central Tibet and sent troops into China 1 Local chieftains had appealed to both the Lhasa and the Qing Manchu governments for help against Namgyal The Tibetan authorities sent an army in 1863 and defeated Namgyal then killed him at his Nyarong fort by 1865 Central Tibet reasserted its authority over the northern parts of Kham and established the Office of the Tibetan High Commissioner to govern 1 4 Tibet also reclaimed Nyarong Dege and the Hor States north of Nyarong China recalled their forces 4 It appears to have been accepted by the Manchu Tongzhi Emperor 10 verification needed Then in 1896 the Qing Governor of Sichuan attempted to gain control of Nyarong valley during a military attack After his defeat the Qing agreed to the withdrawal of Chinese forces and the territory was returned to the direct rule of Lhasa 11 Early 20th century edit nbsp Monastery in KhamFrom 1904 to 1911 China decided to reassert its control over the previously re ceded section of Kham and to push further into the region 1 soon after the invasion of Tibet by the British army under Francis Younghusband in 1904 11 The British invasion alarmed the Qing rulers in China and they sent Fengquan 鳳全 to Kham to initiate land reforms and reduce the numbers of monks 4 An anti foreigner and anti Qing uprising in Batang led to Fengquan s death while Chinese fields were burned 1 The Qing then undertook punitive campaigns in Kham 4 under Manchu army commander Zhao Erfeng also the Governor of Xining where he earned the nickname of the Butcher of Kham 11 In 1905 or 1908 12 13 Zhao began executing monks 3 and destroying many monasteries in Kham and Amdo implementing an early sinicization of the region 14 He abolished the powers of the Tibetan local leaders and appointed Chinese magistrates in their places He introduced new laws that limited the number of lamas and deprived monasteries of their temporal power and inaugurated schemes for having the land cultivated by Chinese immigrants Zhao s methods in eastern Tibet uncannily prefigured the Communist policies nearly half a century later They were aimed at the extermination of the Tibetan clergy the assimilation of territory and repopulation of the Tibetan plateaus with poor peasants from Sichuan Like the later Chinese conquerors Zhao s men looted and destroyed Tibetan monasteries melted down religious images and tore up sacred texts to use to line the soles of their boots and as the Communists were also to do later Zhao Erfeng worked out a comprehensive scheme for the redevelopment of Tibet that covered military training reclamation work secular education trade and administration 15 After the fall of the Qing Dynasty Zhao was stripped of his post and executed by the revolutionary commander Yin Changheng A year before the collapse of the Qing the Beijing appointed amban Zhong Ying invaded Lhasa with the Chinese army in February 1910 11 in order to gain control of Tibet and establish direct Chinese rule 16 The 13th Dalai Lama escaped to British India and returned before China surrendered via a letter from the amban to the Dalai Lama in the summer of 1912 On 13 February 1913 the Dalai Lama declared Tibet an independent nation and announced the end of the historic priest patron relationship between Tibet and China 11 The amban and Chinese army were expelled while other Chinese populations were given three years to depart By late 1913 Kham and Amdo remained largely occupied by China Tibet proposed re establishing the border between Tibet and China at the Dri River during the Simla Conference with Britain and China while Britain countered with another proposal which was initialed but not ratified In 1917 the Tibetan army defeated China in battles at Chamdo west of the Dri River which were halted after Britain refused to sell Tibet additional armements 11 Tibetan independence and Republic of China edit nbsp ROC s control in Kham Light blue line on the west represents the boundary in 1912 1917 after which the ROC was pushed back to the brown line during 1918 1932 By 1945 it arrived at the dotted red line The dark blue was the Simla Convention boundary that ROC turned down nbsp Tibetan government s Kalon Lama Jampa Tendar Governor General of KhamThe official position of the British Government was it would not intervene between China and Tibet and would only recognize the de facto government of China within Tibet at this time 17 In his history of Tibet Bell wrote that the Tibetans were abandoned to Chinese aggression an aggression for which the British Military Expedition to Lhasa and subsequent retreat and consequent power vacuum within Tibet were primarily responsible 17 In 1932 an agreement signed between Chinese warlord Liu Wenhui and Tibetan forces formalized the partition of Kham into two regions Eastern Kham which was administered by Chinese forces and Western Kham which was administered by Tibet Eastern Kham subsequently became the actual area of control of China s Xikang province The border between eastern and western Kham is the Upper Yangtze Dri Chu in Tibetan and Jinsha Jiang respectively in Chinese Tenpay Gyaltsan a Khampa who was 5 years old was selected as the fifth Jamyang Hutuktu in 1921 18 The Kham Pandatsang family led the 1934 Khamba rebellion against the Tibetan government in Lhasa The Kuomintang reached out to the Khampas whose relationship with the Dalai Lama s government in Lhasa were deteriorating badly The Khampa revolutionary leader Pandatsang Rapga founded the Tibet Improvement Party to overthrow the Tibetan government and establish a Tibetan Republic as part of China In addition to using the Khampa s against the Tibetan Government in Lhasa the Chinese Kuomintang also used them against the Communists during the Chinese Civil War The Kuomintang formulated a plan where three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the Panchen Lama to oppose the Communists 19 Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80 000 troops in Sichuan Qinghai and Tibet They hoped to use them against the Communist army 20 The Chinese Kuomintang Nationalists also enlisted Khampas to join their military 21 The Chinese Kuomintang also sought the Khampas help in defending Sichuan from Japan during World War 2 since the temporary capital was located there 22 A Khampa member of the Mongolian Tibetan Academy was Han Jiaxiang 23 300 Khampa bandits were enlisted into the Kuomintang Consolatory Commission military in Sichuan where they were part of the effort of the central government of China to penetrated and destabilize the local Han warlords such as Liu Wenhui The Chinese government sought to exercise full control over frontier areas against the warlords The Consoltary Commission forces were used to battle the Communist Red Army but were defeated when their religious leader was captured by Communist forces 24 The Republic of China government also used Khampa traders to operate secret transports between different places 25 Kesang Tsering was sent by the Chinese to Batang to take control of Xikang where he formed a local government He was spread there for the purpose of propagating the Three People s Principle to the Khampa 26 People s Republic of China edit In 1950 following the defeat of the Kuomintang rulers of China by communist forces in the Chinese Civil War the People s Liberation Army invaded western Kham Western Kham was then set up as a separate Qamdo Territory citation needed then merged into Tibet Autonomous Region in 1965 Meanwhile Xikang comprising eastern Kham was merged into Sichuan in 1955 The border between Sichuan and Tibet Autonomous Region has remained at the Yangtze River Notable people editKhandro Lhamo Guru Tashi Gombo Namgye Tsewang Lhamo Khenpo Yeshe PhuntsokSee also edit nbsp China portal nbsp Asia portalKingdom of DergeReferences edit a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Jann Ronis An Overview of Kham Eastern Tibet Historical Polities The University of Virginia Kham http mystictibettours com about tibet a b c d e f g h i Irina Garri The rise of the Five Hor States of Northern Kham Religion and politics in the Sino Tibetan borderlands Etudes mongoles et siberiennes centrasiatiques et tibetaines No 51 2020 posted online 09 December 2020 a b c d e f Yudru Tsomu Taming the Khampas The Republican Construction of Eastern Tibet Modern China Journal Vol 39 No 3 May 2013 pp 319 344 Gallery Khampa Warriors Heinrich Harrer Limited Edition Portfolio Retrieved 10 February 2020 Subba Tanka Bahadur 1999 Politics of Culture A Study of Three Kirata Communities in the Eastern Himalayas Orient Blackswan ISBN 978 81 250 1693 9 Peissel Michel 1967 Mustang A Lost Tibetan Kingdom Book Faith India ISBN 978 81 7303 002 4 Richardson Hugh E 1984 Tibet and its History Second Edition Revised and Updated p 32 Shambhala Boston amp London ISBN 0 87773 376 7 pbk Eventually the rivalries of the nobles led to a split in the royal family itself Lang Darma the last of Song tsen Gampo s line to rule over all Tibet died in 842 after a brief reign during which he persecuted Buddhism almost to extinction On his death two young children were set up as claimants to the throne each with support from a different party among the nobility The Tibetan Kingdom then broke up into a number of disunited princedoms and for the most part temporarily deserted the Buddhist faith Stein R A 1972 Tibetan Civilization translated by J E Stapleton Driver p 88 Stanford University Press Stanford California ISBN 0 8047 0806 1 cloth ISBN 0 8047 0901 7 paper What is Tibet Fact and Fancy Retrieved 2010 03 02 a b c d e f Tsering Shakya The Thirteenth Dalai Lama Tubten Gyatso Treasury of Lives accessed May 11 2021 Ligne MacMahon Archived 2013 06 16 at the Wayback Machine Fossier Astrid 2004 L Inde des britanniques a Nehru un acteur cle du conflit sino tibetain Paris Tibetan Parliamentary amp Policy Research Centre Hilton Isabel 1999 The Search for the Panchen Lama Viking Reprint Penguin Books 2000 p 115 ISBN 0 14 024670 3 Smith 1996 p 175 a b Bell 1924 p 113 Lin 2010 p 61 and established a military garrison 35 In 1921 when five year old Khampa Tibetan Tenpay Gyaltsan aka Huang Zhengguang was identified and enthroned as the new fifth Jamyang Hutuktu Labrang remained under the Ma family s control Lin 2010 p 117 A simultaneous proposal suggested that with the support of the new Panchen Lama and his entourage at least three army divisions of the anti Communist Khampa Tibetans could be mustered in southwest China Lin 2010 p xxi tusi from the Sichuan Qinghai border and Su Yonghe a Khampa native chieftain from Nagchuka on the Qinghai Tibetan border According to Nationalist intelligence reports these leaders altogether commanded about 80000 irregulars Lin 2010 p 60 the reorganization of local militia the recruitment of Khampa aborigines into the Nationalist armies and the strengthening of the taxation and judicial systems 34 Xikang however was not the sole focus of Nationalist frontier Lin 2010 p 121 Qinghai and Gansu who threatened to ally with the Japanese at the early stage of the war and to control Xikang and the local Khampa Tibetans would be to protect the whole of Sichuan the wartime headquarters of the Nationalists Lin 2010 p 33 His reports and telegrams back to Nanking served as perhaps the most reliable sources of information for Nanking before its final collapse 1949 Han Jiaxiang a native Khampa was a senior at the Mongolian and Tibetan Academy in Lin 2010 p 52 A force of about 300 soldiers was organized and augmented by recruiting local Khampa bandits into the army The relationship between the Consolatory Commission and Liu Wenhui seriously deteriorated in early 1936 when the Norla Hutuktu Lin 2010 p 81 A new pack transport firm operated by Khampa Tibetan traders but covertly backed by Chongqing was accordingly set up in Dartsendo to manage the route 35 A new branch of the Bank of China was also opened in Kalimpong in northeast India Lin 2010 p 27 area and spreading Sun Yat sen s Three People s Principle among the Tibetan and Khampa minorities Kesang Tsering set up a field headquarters in Batang Pa an There he appointed his own Xikang provincial government staff and issued an Sources edit Bell Charles Alfred 1924 Tibet Past amp Present Oxford Clarendon Press ISBN 9788120810488 Lin Hsiao ting 2010 Modern China s Ethnic Frontiers A Journey to the West Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 92393 7 Smith Warren 1996 Tibetan Nation A History Of Tibetan Nationalism And Sino Tibetan Relations Avalon Publishing ISBN 978 0 8133 3155 3Further reading editAndreas Gruschke The Cultural Monuments of Tibet s Outer Provinces Kham 3 vols 2 published so far White Lotus Press Bangkok 2004 ISBN 974 480 049 6 Andrew Forbes and David Henley China s Ancient Tea Horse Road Cognoscenti Books 2011 ISBN 9781300464860 Augusta Molnar The Kham Magar Women of Thabang Kathmandu Nepal Centre for Economic Development and Administration Tribhuvan University 1981 Birgit van de Wijer Tibet s Forgotten Heroes The Story of Tibet s Armed Resistance Against China 1st ed Amberley Publishing Limited 2010 ISBN 9781848689855 David Gellne Resistance and The State Nepalese Experiences New York Berghah Books 2007 ISBN 9781845452162 David Molk Lion of Siddhas The Life and Teachings of Padampa Sangye Shambhala 2008 ISBN 9781559398404 Douglas Wissing Pioneer in Tibet The Life and Perils of Dr Albert Shelton St Martin s Press 2015 ISBN 9781466892248 Edward A Parmee D T Campbell and R A LeVine Kham and Amdo of Tibet Human Relations Area Files 1972 George Bogle and Thomas Manning Narratives of The Mission of George Bogle To Tibet and of The Journey of Thomas Manning To Lhasa Cambridge University Press 2010 ISBN 9781108022552 Kurtis R Schaeffer Sources of Tibetan Tradition New York Columbia University Press 2013 ISBN 9780231509787 Michael Buckley Tibet The Bradt Travel Guide 2012 ISBN 9781841623825 Pamela Logan Tibetan Rescue The Extraordinary Quest to Save the Sacred Art Treasures of Tibet Tuttle Publishing 2002 ISBN 9780804834216 Thomas Laird The Story of Tibet Conversation With the Dalai Lama Grove Press New York ISBN 978 0 8021 1827 1 Tsepon Wangchuk Dedon Shakabpa One Hundred Thousand Moons An Advanced Political History of Tibet Brill 2009 ISBN 9789004177321 Tsering Shakya The Dragon in the Land of Snows A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947 London Columbia University Press 1999 ISBN 0 14 019615 3 Xiuyu Wang China s Last Imperial Frontier Late Qing Expansion in Sichuan s Tibetan Borderlands Lexington Books 2011 ISBN 9780739168097 Yudru Tsomu The Rise of Gonpo Namgyel in Kham The Blind Warrior of Nyarong Lexington Books 2014 ISBN 9780739177938External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kham Khampa Network Seven Days in Permitless Tibet magazine article about traveling overland across Kham 30 36 6 01 N 96 50 29 59 E 30 6016694 N 96 8415528 E 30 6016694 96 8415528 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Kham amp oldid 1184140621, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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