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Indian classical music

Indian classical music is the classical music of the Indian subcontinent.[1] It has two major traditions: the North Indian classical music known as Hindustani and the South Indian expression known as Carnatic.[2] These traditions were not distinct until about the 15th century. During the period of Mughal rule of the Indian subcontinent, the traditions separated and evolved into distinct forms. Hindustani music emphasizes improvisation and exploration of all aspects of a raga, while Carnatic performances tend to be short composition-based.[2] However, the two systems continue to have more common features than differences.[3]

The roots of the classical music of India are found in the Vedic literature of Hinduism and the ancient Natyashastra, the classic Sanskrit text on performing arts by Bharata Muni.[4][5] The 13th century Sanskrit text Sangeeta-Ratnakara of Sarangadeva is regarded as the definitive text by both the Hindustani music and the Carnatic music traditions.[6][7]

Indian classical music has two foundational elements, raga and tala. The raga, based on a varied repertoire of swara (notes including microtones), forms the fabric of a deeply intricate melodic structure, while the tala measures the time cycle.[8] The raga gives an artist a palette to build the melody from sounds, while the tala provides them with a creative framework for rhythmic improvisation using time.[9][10][11] In Indian classical music the space between the notes is often more important than the notes themselves, and it traditionally eschews Western classical concepts such as harmony, counterpoint, chords, or modulation.[12][13][14]

History

The root of music in ancient India are found in the Vedic literature of Hinduism. The earliest Indian thought combined three arts, syllabic recital (vadya), melos (gita) and dance (nrtta).[15] As these fields developed, sangeeta became a distinct genre of art, in a form equivalent to contemporary music. This likely occurred before the time of Yāska (c. 500 BCE), since he includes these terms in his nirukta studies, one of the six Vedanga of ancient Indian tradition. Some of the ancient texts of Hinduism such as the Samaveda (c. 1000 BCE) are structured entirely to melodic themes,[16][17] it is sections of Rigveda set to music.[18]

The Samaveda is organized into two formats. One part is based on the musical meter, another by the aim of the rituals.[19] The text is written with embedded coding, where swaras (octave notes) are either shown above or within the text, or the verse is written into parvans (knot or member); in simple words, this embedded code of swaras is like the skeleton of the song. The swaras have about 12 different forms and different combinations of these swaras are made to sit under the names of different ragas. The specific code of a song clearly tells us what combination of swaras are present in a specific song. The lyrical part of the song is called "sahityam" and sahityam is just like singing the swaras altogether but using the lyrics of the song. The code in the form of swaras have even the notation of which note to be sung high and which one low. The hymns of Samaveda contain melodic content, form, rhythm and metric organization.[19] This structure is, however, not unique or limited to Samaveda. The Rigveda embeds the musical meter too, without the kind of elaboration found in the Samaveda. For example, the Gayatri mantra contains three metric lines of exactly eight syllables, with an embedded ternary rhythm.[20]

 
Five Gandharvas (celestial musicians) from 4th–5th century CE, northwest South Asia, carrying the four types of musical instruments. Gandharvas are discussed in Vedic era literature.[21]

In the ancient traditions of Hinduism, two musical genre appeared, namely Gandharva (formal, composed, ceremonial music) and Gana (informal, improvised, entertainment music).[22] The Gandharva music also implied celestial, divine associations, while the Gana also implied singing.[22] The Vedic Sanskrit musical tradition had spread widely in the Indian subcontinent, and according to Rowell, the ancient Tamil classics make it "abundantly clear that a cultivated musical tradition existed in South India as early as the last few pre-Christian centuries".[23]

The classic Sanskrit text Natya Shastra is at the foundation of the numerous classical music and dance traditions of India. Before Natyashastra was finalized, the ancient Indian traditions had classified musical instruments into four groups based on their acoustic principle (how they work, rather than the material they are made of) for example flute which works with gracious in and out flow of air.[24] These four categories are accepted as given and are four separate chapters in the Natyashastra, one each on stringed instruments (chordophones), hollow instruments (aerophones), solid instruments (idiophones), and covered instruments (membranophones).[24] Of these, states Rowell, the idiophone in the form of "small bronze cymbals" were used for tala. Almost the entire chapter of Natyashastra on idiophones, by Bharata, is a theoretical treatise on the system of tala.[25] Time keeping with idiophones was considered a separate function than that of percussion (membranophones), in the early Indian thought on music theory.[25]

The early 13th century Sanskrit text Sangitaratnakara (literally, "Ocean of Music and Dance"), by Sarngadeva patronized by King Sighana of the Yadava dynasty in Maharashtra, mentions and discusses ragas and talas.[26] He identifies seven tala families, then subdivides them into rhythmic ratios, presenting a methodology for improvization and composition that continues to inspire modern era Indian musicians.[27] Sangitaratnakara is one of the most complete historic medieval era Hindu treatises on this subject that has survived into the modern era, that relates to the structure, technique and reasoning behind ragas and talas.[28][27]

The centrality and significance of music in ancient and early medieval India is also expressed in numerous temple and shrine reliefs, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, such as through the carving of musicians with cymbals at the fifth century Pavaya temple sculpture near Gwalior,[29] and the Ellora Caves.[30][31]

Texts

The post-Vedic era historical literature relating to Indian classical music has been extensive. The ancient and medieval texts are primarily in Sanskrit (Hinduism), but major reviews of music theory, instruments and practice were also composed in regional languages such as Braj, Kannada, Odia, Pali (Buddhism), Prakrit (Jainism), Tamil and Telugu.[32] While numerous manuscripts have survived into the modern era, many original works on Indian music are believed to be lost, and are known to have existed only because they are quoted and discussed in other manuscripts on classical Indian music.[32][33] Many of the encyclopedic Puranas contain large chapters on music theory and instruments, such as the Bhagavata Purana, the Markandeya Purana, the Vayu Purana, the Linga Purana, and the Visnudharmottara Purana.[34][35][36]

The most cited and influential among these texts are the Sama Veda, Natya shastra (classic treatise on music theory, Gandharva), Dattilam, Brihaddesi (treatise on regional classical music forms), and Sangita Ratnakara (definitive text for Carnatic and Hindustani traditions).[6][32][37] Most historic music theory texts have been by Hindu scholars. Some classical music texts were also composed by Buddhists and Jain scholars, and in 16th century by Muslim scholars. These are listed in the attached table.

Major traditions

 
 
Indian classical music performances

The classical music tradition of the ancient and medieval Indian subcontinent (modern Bangladesh, India, Pakistan) were a generally integrated system through the 14th century, after which the socio-political turmoil of the Delhi Sultanate era isolated the north from the south. The music traditions of the North and South India were not considered distinct until about the 16th century, but after that the traditions acquired distinct forms.[2] North Indian classical music is called Hindustani, while the South Indian expression is called Carnatic (sometimes spelled as Karnatic). According to Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, the North Indian tradition acquired its modern form after the 14th or the 15th century.[41]

Indian classical music has historically adopted and evolved with many regional styles, such as the Bengali classical tradition. This openness to ideas led to assimilation of regional folk innovations, as well as influences that arrived from outside the subcontinent. For example, Hindustani music assimilated Arabian and Persian influences.[42] This assimilation of ideas was upon the ancient classical foundations such as raga, tala, matras as well as the musical instruments. For example, the Persian Rāk is probably a pronunciation of Raga. According to Hormoz Farhat, Rāk has no meaning in modern Persian language, and the concept of raga is unknown in Persia.[43]

Carnatic music

Purandara Dasa (1484–1564) was a Hindu composer and musicologist who lived in Hampi of the Vijayanagara Empire.[44][45] He is considered Pithamaha (literally, "grandfather") of the Carnatic music. Purandara Dasa was a monk and a devotee of the Hindu god Krishna (Vishnu, Vittal avatar).[44] He systematised classical Indian music theory and developed exercises for musicians to learn and perfect their art. He travelled widely sharing and teaching his ideas, and influenced numerous South Indian and Maharashtra Bhakti movement musicians.[46] These exercises, his teachings about raga, and his systematic methodology called Suladi Sapta Tala (literally, "primordial seven talas") remains in use in contemporary times.[45][47] The efforts of Purandara Dasa in the 16th century began the Carnatic style of Indian classical music.[46]

 
Saraswati is the goddess of music and knowledge in the Indian tradition.

Carnatic music, from South India, tends to be more rhythmically intensive and structured than Hindustani music. Examples of this are the logical classification of ragas into melakartas, and the use of fixed compositions similar to Western classical music. Carnatic raga elaborations are generally much faster in tempo and shorter than their equivalents in Hindustani music. In addition, accompanists have a much larger role in Carnatic concerts than in Hindustani concerts. Today's typical concert structure was put in place by the vocalist Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar. The opening piece is called a varnam, and is a warm-up for the musicians. A devotion and a request for a blessing follows, then a series of interchanges between ragams (unmetered melody) and Tanam (the ornamentation within a melorhythmic cycle, equivalent to the jor). This is intermixed with hymns called krithis. The pallavi or theme from the raga then follows. Carnatic pieces also have notated lyrical poems that are reproduced as such, possibly with embellishments and treatments according to the performer's ideology, referred to as Manodharmam.[citation needed]

Primary themes include worship, descriptions of temples, philosophy, and nayaka-nayika (Sanskrit "hero-heroine") themes. Tyagaraja (1759–1847), Muthuswami Dikshitar (1776–1827) and Syama Sastri (1762–1827) have been the important historic scholars of Carnatic music. According to Eleanor Zelliot, Tyagaraja is known in the Carnatic tradition as one of its greatest composers, and he reverentially acknowledged the influence of Purandara Dasa.[46]

A common belief is that Carnatic music represents a more ancient and refined approach to classical music, whereas Hindustani music has evolved by external influences.[48]

Hindustani music

 
The 16th century musician Tansen, who about the age of 60 joined the Mughal Akbar court. For many Hindustani music gharanas (schools), he is their founder.

It is unclear when the process of differentiation of Hindustani music started. The process may have started in the 14th century courts of the Delhi Sultans. However, according to Jairazbhoy, the North Indian tradition likely acquired its modern form after the 14th or after the 15th century.[49] The development of Hindustani music reached a peak during the reign of Akbar. During this 16th century period, Tansen studied music and introduced musical innovations, for about the first sixty years of his life with patronage of the Hindu king Ram Chand of Gwalior, and thereafter performed at the Muslim court of Akbar.[50][51] Many musicians consider Tansen as the founder of Hindustani music.[52]

Tansen's style and innovations inspired many, and many modern gharanas (Hindustani music teaching houses) link themselves to his lineage.[53] The Muslim courts discouraged Sanskrit, and encouraged technical music. Such constraints led Hindustani music to evolve in a different way than Carnatic music.[53][54]

Hindustani music style is mainly found in North India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. It exists in four major forms: Dhrupad, Khyal (or Khayal), Tarana, and the semi-classical Thumri.[55] Dhrupad is ancient, Khyal evolved from it, Thumri evolved from Khyal.[56] There are three major schools of Thumri: Lucknow gharana, Banaras gharana and Punjabi gharana. These weave in folk music innovations.[55] Tappa is the most folksy, one which likely existed in Rajasthan and Punjab region before it was systematized and integrated into classical music structure. It became popular, with the Bengali musicians developing their own Tappa.[57]

Khyal is the modern form of Hindustani music, and the term literally means "imagination". It is significant because it was the template for Sufi musicians among the Islamic community of India, and Qawwals sang their folk songs in the Khyal format.[58]

Dhrupad (or Dhruvapad), the ancient form described in the Hindu text Natyashastra,[59] is one of the core forms of classical music found all over the Indian subcontinent. The word comes from Dhruva which means immovable and permanent.[60][56]

A Dhrupad has at least four stanzas, called Sthayi (or Asthayi), Antara, Sanchari and Abhoga. The Sthayi part is a melody that uses the middle octave's first tetrachord and the lower octave notes.[56] The Antara part uses the middle octave's second tetrachord and the higher octave notes.[56] The Sanchari part is the development phase, which builds using parts of Sthayi and Antara already played, and it uses melodic material built with all the three octave notes.[56] The Abhoga is the concluding section, that brings the listener back to the familiar starting point of Sthayi, albeit with rhythmic variations, with diminished notes like a gentle goodbye, that are ideally mathematical fractions such as dagun (half), tigun (third) or chaugun (fourth).[61] Sometimes a fifth stanza called Bhoga is included. Though usually related to philosophical or Bhakti (emotional devotion to a god or goddess) themes, some Dhrupads were composed to praise kings.[60][61]

Improvisation is of central importance to Hindustani music, and each gharana (school tradition) has developed its own techniques. At its core, it starts with a standard composition (bandish), then expands it in a process called vistar. The improvisation methods have ancient roots, and one of the more common techniques is called Alap, which is followed by the Jor and Jhala. The Alap explores possible tonal combinations among other things, Jor explores speed or tempo (faster), while Jhala explores complex combinations like a fishnet of strokes while keeping the beat patterns.[62] As with Carnatic music, Hindustani music has assimilated various folk tunes. For example, ragas such as Kafi and Jaijaiwanti are based on folk tunes.[citation needed]

Persian and Arab influences

Hindustani music has had Arab and Persian music influences, including the creation of new ragas and the development of instruments such as the sitar and sarod.[42] The nature of these influences are unclear. Scholars have attempted to study Arabic maqam (also spelled makam) of Arabian peninsula, Turkey and northern Africa, and dastgah of Iran, to discern the nature and extent.[63][64] Through the colonial era and until the 1960s, the attempt was to theoretically study ragas and maqams and suggested commonalities. Later comparative musicology studies, states Bruno Nettl – a professor of Music, have found the similarities between classical Indian music and European music as well, raising the question about the point of similarities and of departures between the different world music systems.[63][64]

One of the earliest known discussions of Persian maqam and Indian ragas is by the late 16th century scholar Pundarika Vittala. He states that Persian maqams in use in his times had been derived from older Indian ragas (or mela), and he specifically maps over a dozen maqam. For example, Vittala states that the Hijaz maqam was derived from the Asaveri raga, and Jangula was derived from the Bangal.[65][66] In 1941, Haidar Rizvi questioned this and stated that influence was in the other direction, Middle Eastern maqams were turned into Indian ragas, such as Zangulah maqam becoming Jangla raga.[67] According to John Baily – a professor of Ethnomusicology, there is evidence that the traffic of musical ideas were both ways, because Persian records confirm that Indian musicians were a part of the Qajar court in Tehran,[68] an interaction that continued through the 20th century with import of Indian musical instruments in cities such as Herat near Afghanistan-Iran border.[69]

Features

 
 
Indian classical music performances

Classical Indian music is a genre of South Asian music, the other being film, various varieties of pop, regional folk, religious and devotional music.[1]

In Indian classical music, the raga and the tala are two foundational elements. The raga forms the fabric of a melodic structure, and the tala keeps the time cycle.[8] Both raga and tala are open frameworks for creativity and allow a very large number of possibilities, however, the tradition considers a few hundred ragas and talas as basic.[70] Raga is intimately related to tala or guidance about "division of time", with each unit called a matra (beat, and duration between beats).[71]

Raga

A raga is a central concept of Indian music, predominant in its expression. According to Walter Kaufmann, though a remarkable and prominent feature of Indian music, a definition of raga cannot be offered in one or two sentences.[72] Raga may be roughly described as a musical entity that includes note intonation, relative duration and order, in a manner similar to how words flexibly form phrases to create an atmosphere of expression.[73] In some cases, certain rules are considered obligatory, in others optional. The raga allows flexibility, where the artist may rely on simple expression, or may add ornamentations yet express the same essential message but evoke a different intensity of mood.[73]

A raga has a given set of notes, on a scale, ordered in melodies with musical motifs.[9] A musician playing a raga, states Bruno Nettl, may traditionally use just these notes, but is free to emphasize or improvise certain degrees of the scale.[9] The Indian tradition suggests a certain sequencing of how the musician moves from note to note for each raga, in order for the performance to create a rasa (mood, atmosphere, essence, inner feeling) that is unique to each raga. A raga can be written on a scale. Theoretically, thousands of raga are possible given 5 or more notes, but in practical use, the classical Indian tradition has refined and typically relies on several hundred.[9] For most artists, their basic perfected repertoire has some forty to fifty ragas.[74] Raga in Indian classical music is intimately related to tala or guidance about "division of time", with each unit called a matra (beat, and duration between beats).[71]

A raga is not a tune, because the same raga can yield a very large number of tunes.[75] A raga is not a scale, because many ragas can be based on the same scale.[75][76] A raga, states Bruno Nettl and other music scholars, is a concept similar to mode, something between the domains of tune and scale, and it is best conceptualized as a "unique array of melodic features, mapped to and organized for a unique aesthetic sentiment in the listener".[75] The goal of a raga and its artist is to create rasa (essence, feeling, atmosphere) with music, as classical Indian dance does with performance arts. In the Indian tradition, classical dances are performed with music set to various ragas.[77]

Tala

According to David Nelson – an Ethnomusicology scholar specializing in Carnatic music, a tala in Indian music covers "the whole subject of musical meter".[78] Indian music is composed and performed in a metrical framework, a structure of beats that is a tala. A tala measures musical time in Indian music. However, it does not imply a regular repeating accent pattern, instead its hierarchical arrangement depends on how the musical piece is supposed to be performed.[78]

The tala forms the metrical structure that repeats, in a cyclical harmony, from the start to end of any particular song or dance segment, making it conceptually analogous to meters in Western music.[78] However, talas have certain qualitative features that classical European musical meters do not. For example, some talas are much longer than any classical Western meter, such as a framework based on 29 beats whose cycle takes about 45 seconds to complete when performed. Another sophistication in talas is the lack of "strong, weak" beat composition typical of the traditional European meter. In classical Indian traditions, the tala is not restricted to permutations of strong and weak beats, but its flexibility permits the accent of a beat to be decided by the shape of musical phrase.[78]

The most widely used tala in the South Indian system is adi tala.[79] In the North Indian system, the most common tala is teental.[80] In the two major systems of classical Indian music, the first count of any tala is called sam.[80]

Instruments

 
 
 
 
Musical instrument types mentioned in the Natyashastra.[81][24]

Instruments typically used in Hindustani music include the sitar, sarod, surbahar, esraj, veena, tanpura, bansuri, shehnai, sarangi, violin, santoor, pakhavaj and tabla.[82] Instruments typically used in Carnatic music include veena, venu, gottuvadyam, harmonium, mridangam, kanjira, ghatam, nadaswaram and violin.[83]

Players of the tabla, a type of drum, usually keep the rhythm, an indicator of time in Hindustani music. Another common instrument is the stringed tanpura, which is played at a steady tone (a drone) throughout the performance of the raga, and which provides both a point of reference for the musician and a background against which the music stands out. The tuning of the tanpura depends on the raga being performed. The task of playing the tanpura traditionally falls to a student of the soloist. Other instruments for accompaniment include the sarangi and the harmonium.[82]


Notation system

Indian classical music is both elaborate and expressive. Like Western classical music, it divides the octave into 12 semitones of which the 7 basic notes are, in ascending tonal order, Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni for Hindustani music and Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni for Carnatic music, similar to Western music's Do Re Mi Fa So La Si . However, Indian music uses just-intonation tuning, unlike some modern Western classical music, which uses the equal-temperament tuning system. Also, unlike modern Western classical music, Indian classical music places great emphasis on improvisation.[citation needed]

The underlying scale may have four, five, six or seven tones, called swaras (sometimes spelled as svaras). The swara concept is found in the ancient Natya Shastra in Chapter 28. It calls the unit of tonal measurement or audible unit as Śhruti,[84] with verse 28.21 introducing the musical scale as follows,[85]

तत्र स्वराः –
षड्‍जश्‍च ऋषभश्‍चैव गान्धारो मध्यमस्तथा ।
पञ्‍चमो धैवतश्‍चैव सप्तमोऽथ निषादवान् ॥ २१॥

— Natya Shastra, 28.21[86][87]

These seven degrees are shared by both major raga systems, that is the North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic) systems.[88] The solfege (sargam) is learnt in abbreviated form: sa, ri (Carnatic) or re (Hindustani), ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Of these, the first that is "sa", and the fifth that is "pa", are considered anchors that are unalterable, while the remaining have flavors that differs between the two major systems.[88]

Contemporary Indian music schools follow notations and classifications (see melakarta and thaat). These are generally based on a flawed but still useful notation system created by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande.[citation needed]

Reception outside India

According to Yukteshwar Kumar, elements of Indian music arrived in China in the 3rd century, such as in the works of Chinese lyricist Li Yannian. [89] In 1958, Ravi Shankar came to the US and started making albums. These started a 1960s penchant for Indian classical music in the States. By 1967 Shankar and other artists were performing at rock music festivals alongside Western rock, blues, and soul acts. This lasted until the mid-1970s. Ravi Shankar performed at Woodstock for an audience of over 500,000 in 1969. In the 1980s, 1990s and particularly the 2000s onwards, Indian Classical Music has seen rapid growth in reception and development around the globe, particularly in North America, where immigrant communities have preserved and passed on classical music traditions to subsequent generations through the establishment of local festivals and music schools.[90] Numerous musicians of American origin, including Ramakrishnan Murthy, Sandeep Narayan, Pandit Vikash Maharaj, Sandeep Narayan, Abby V, and Mahesh Kale have taken professionally to Indian Classical Music with great success. In his 2020 released video, Canadian singer Abby V demonstrated 73 different Indian Classical ragas in a live rendering, which went viral on the internet; further establishing the growing prominence of Indian Classical Music around the globe. [91]

Organizations

SPIC MACAY, established in 1977, has more than 500 chapters in India and abroad. SPIC MACAY claims to hold around 5000 events every year related to Indian classical music and dance.[92]

Prayag Sangeet Samiti is also a well established organization promoting Indian Classical Music.

See also

References

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  • Jairazbhoy, Nazir Ali (1995). The Rāgs of North Indian Music: Their Structure & Evolution (first revised Indian ed.). Bombay: Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7154-395-3.
  • Kaufmann, Walter (1968), The Ragas of North India, Oxford & Indiana University Press, ISBN 978-0-253-34780-0, OCLC 11369
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External links

  • Rajan Parrikar Music Archive includes detailed articles on Indian classical music with analyses and audio extracts from rare recordings.
  • Vijaya Parrikar Library of Indian Classical Music Library contains recorded music of India's great music masters of yesteryear, excerpts of old, hard-to-find or unpublished recordings.
  • Hindustani Rag Sangeet Online – more than 800 audio and video archives
  • Raag Hindustani – Explanations and examples of Indian Classical (Hindustani) music
  • Classical Indian music, SPIC MACAY

indian, classical, music, many, forms, music, that, have, their, roots, particular, regional, cultures, other, classical, music, traditions, list, classical, music, traditions, classical, music, indian, subcontinent, major, traditions, north, known, hindustani. Indian classical music is one of the many forms of art music that have their roots in particular regional cultures For other classical and art music traditions see List of classical and art music traditions Indian classical music is the classical music of the Indian subcontinent 1 It has two major traditions the North Indian classical music known as Hindustani and the South Indian expression known as Carnatic 2 These traditions were not distinct until about the 15th century During the period of Mughal rule of the Indian subcontinent the traditions separated and evolved into distinct forms Hindustani music emphasizes improvisation and exploration of all aspects of a raga while Carnatic performances tend to be short composition based 2 However the two systems continue to have more common features than differences 3 The roots of the classical music of India are found in the Vedic literature of Hinduism and the ancient Natyashastra the classic Sanskrit text on performing arts by Bharata Muni 4 5 The 13th century Sanskrit text Sangeeta Ratnakara of Sarangadeva is regarded as the definitive text by both the Hindustani music and the Carnatic music traditions 6 7 Indian classical music has two foundational elements raga and tala The raga based on a varied repertoire of swara notes including microtones forms the fabric of a deeply intricate melodic structure while the tala measures the time cycle 8 The raga gives an artist a palette to build the melody from sounds while the tala provides them with a creative framework for rhythmic improvisation using time 9 10 11 In Indian classical music the space between the notes is often more important than the notes themselves and it traditionally eschews Western classical concepts such as harmony counterpoint chords or modulation 12 13 14 Contents 1 History 1 1 Texts 2 Major traditions 2 1 Carnatic music 2 2 Hindustani music 2 2 1 Persian and Arab influences 3 Features 3 1 Raga 3 2 Tala 3 3 Instruments 3 4 Notation system 4 Reception outside India 5 Organizations 6 See also 7 References 7 1 Bibliography 8 External linksHistory EditThe root of music in ancient India are found in the Vedic literature of Hinduism The earliest Indian thought combined three arts syllabic recital vadya melos gita and dance nrtta 15 As these fields developed sangeeta became a distinct genre of art in a form equivalent to contemporary music This likely occurred before the time of Yaska c 500 BCE since he includes these terms in his nirukta studies one of the six Vedanga of ancient Indian tradition Some of the ancient texts of Hinduism such as the Samaveda c 1000 BCE are structured entirely to melodic themes 16 17 it is sections of Rigveda set to music 18 The Samaveda is organized into two formats One part is based on the musical meter another by the aim of the rituals 19 The text is written with embedded coding where swaras octave notes are either shown above or within the text or the verse is written into parvans knot or member in simple words this embedded code of swaras is like the skeleton of the song The swaras have about 12 different forms and different combinations of these swaras are made to sit under the names of different ragas The specific code of a song clearly tells us what combination of swaras are present in a specific song The lyrical part of the song is called sahityam and sahityam is just like singing the swaras altogether but using the lyrics of the song The code in the form of swaras have even the notation of which note to be sung high and which one low The hymns of Samaveda contain melodic content form rhythm and metric organization 19 This structure is however not unique or limited to Samaveda The Rigveda embeds the musical meter too without the kind of elaboration found in the Samaveda For example the Gayatri mantra contains three metric lines of exactly eight syllables with an embedded ternary rhythm 20 Five Gandharvas celestial musicians from 4th 5th century CE northwest South Asia carrying the four types of musical instruments Gandharvas are discussed in Vedic era literature 21 In the ancient traditions of Hinduism two musical genre appeared namely Gandharva formal composed ceremonial music and Gana informal improvised entertainment music 22 The Gandharva music also implied celestial divine associations while the Gana also implied singing 22 The Vedic Sanskrit musical tradition had spread widely in the Indian subcontinent and according to Rowell the ancient Tamil classics make it abundantly clear that a cultivated musical tradition existed in South India as early as the last few pre Christian centuries 23 The classic Sanskrit text Natya Shastra is at the foundation of the numerous classical music and dance traditions of India Before Natyashastra was finalized the ancient Indian traditions had classified musical instruments into four groups based on their acoustic principle how they work rather than the material they are made of for example flute which works with gracious in and out flow of air 24 These four categories are accepted as given and are four separate chapters in the Natyashastra one each on stringed instruments chordophones hollow instruments aerophones solid instruments idiophones and covered instruments membranophones 24 Of these states Rowell the idiophone in the form of small bronze cymbals were used for tala Almost the entire chapter of Natyashastra on idiophones by Bharata is a theoretical treatise on the system of tala 25 Time keeping with idiophones was considered a separate function than that of percussion membranophones in the early Indian thought on music theory 25 The early 13th century Sanskrit text Sangitaratnakara literally Ocean of Music and Dance by Sarngadeva patronized by King Sighana of the Yadava dynasty in Maharashtra mentions and discusses ragas and talas 26 He identifies seven tala families then subdivides them into rhythmic ratios presenting a methodology for improvization and composition that continues to inspire modern era Indian musicians 27 Sangitaratnakara is one of the most complete historic medieval era Hindu treatises on this subject that has survived into the modern era that relates to the structure technique and reasoning behind ragas and talas 28 27 The centrality and significance of music in ancient and early medieval India is also expressed in numerous temple and shrine reliefs in Buddhism Hinduism and Jainism such as through the carving of musicians with cymbals at the fifth century Pavaya temple sculpture near Gwalior 29 and the Ellora Caves 30 31 Texts Edit The post Vedic era historical literature relating to Indian classical music has been extensive The ancient and medieval texts are primarily in Sanskrit Hinduism but major reviews of music theory instruments and practice were also composed in regional languages such as Braj Kannada Odia Pali Buddhism Prakrit Jainism Tamil and Telugu 32 While numerous manuscripts have survived into the modern era many original works on Indian music are believed to be lost and are known to have existed only because they are quoted and discussed in other manuscripts on classical Indian music 32 33 Many of the encyclopedic Puranas contain large chapters on music theory and instruments such as the Bhagavata Purana the Markandeya Purana the Vayu Purana the Linga Purana and the Visnudharmottara Purana 34 35 36 The most cited and influential among these texts are the Sama Veda Natya shastra classic treatise on music theory Gandharva Dattilam Brihaddesi treatise on regional classical music forms and Sangita Ratnakara definitive text for Carnatic and Hindustani traditions 6 32 37 Most historic music theory texts have been by Hindu scholars Some classical music texts were also composed by Buddhists and Jain scholars and in 16th century by Muslim scholars These are listed in the attached table Classical Indian music texts 32 Title Author Century Religion Notability 32 Samaveda Vyasa c 1000 BCE Hinduism Scripture set to musicDattilam Dattila c 4th century BCE 2nd century CE Hinduism The text marks the transition from the sama gayan ritual chants to gandharva musicNatyasastra Bharata Muni c 200 BCE 200 CE Hinduism Oldest surviving complete Hindu text on music theory and performance arts Lost texts Vishakhila Sardula Visnudharmottara c 300 500 CE Hinduism Cited by medieval authors Lost text Rahul c 5th century CE Buddhism Cited by medieval authorsBrihaddesi Matanga c 800 900 CE Hinduism Survives in parts theory of regional music forms entertainment Murchana systemAbhinavabharati Abhinavagupta c 900 1000 CE Hinduism Theory of rasa 38 Sarasvati Hridyalankara Nanyadeva c 1080 CE Hinduism Music theory appendix on Natyashastra bhasyaSangita Sudhakara Haripala c 1175 CE HinduismAbhilasitartha Cintamani Somesvara c 12th century CE Hinduism Survives in parts Murchana system ragasSangita Ratnavali Somabhupala c 1180 CE HinduismSangita Samayasara Parsvadeva c 1200 CE Hinduism Theory of gamakasSangita Ratnakara Sarngadeva c 1230 CE Hinduism Systematizes raga prakirnaka prabandha tala vadya and nritya 39 Definitive text to Carnatic and Hindustani classical musicSringarahara Raja Sakambhari c 1300 CE Hinduism Directory of ancient ragas 89 derivative ragas and 120 talasRasatatvasamuccaya Allaraja c 1300 CE Hinduism Four chapters to classical musicSangitopanisadasara Suddhakalasa c 1350 CE Jainism Music theory includes rare talasBalabodhan unknown c 1350 CE Hinduism Review and quotes music texts believed to be lostVisvapradip Bhuvanananda c 1350 CE Hinduism A major review on raga tala musical instrumentsSangitacandra Allaraja c 14th century CE Hinduism Commented by 17th century Nepalese king JyotirmalSangita Dipika Madhava Bhatta c 1400 CE Hinduism Raga ragini systemSangita Raj Kumbhakarna c 1449 CE Hinduism A reviewSvaramelakalanidhi Ramamatya c 16th century CE Hinduism Carnatic music mela systemRaga Mala Raga Manjari Sadraga Candrodaya Pundarika Vittala c 16th century CE Hinduism Carnatic music mentions Persian maqamLahjat i Sikandar Shahi Umar Sama Yahya c 16th century CE Islam Hindustani music includes a review of Natya Shastra and Sangita Ratnakara 40 Rasakaumudi Srikantha c 16th century CE Jainism A review of music systemsSangita Sudha Raghunatha Thanjavur c 1620 CE Hinduism Carnatic Three languages musical instruments 264 ragas 50 popular ragasSangita Cudamani Govinda c 1680 CE Hinduism Carnatic 72 melakartas musical instruments innovationsMajor traditions Edit Indian classical music performances The classical music tradition of the ancient and medieval Indian subcontinent modern Bangladesh India Pakistan were a generally integrated system through the 14th century after which the socio political turmoil of the Delhi Sultanate era isolated the north from the south The music traditions of the North and South India were not considered distinct until about the 16th century but after that the traditions acquired distinct forms 2 North Indian classical music is called Hindustani while the South Indian expression is called Carnatic sometimes spelled as Karnatic According to Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy the North Indian tradition acquired its modern form after the 14th or the 15th century 41 Indian classical music has historically adopted and evolved with many regional styles such as the Bengali classical tradition This openness to ideas led to assimilation of regional folk innovations as well as influences that arrived from outside the subcontinent For example Hindustani music assimilated Arabian and Persian influences 42 This assimilation of ideas was upon the ancient classical foundations such as raga tala matras as well as the musical instruments For example the Persian Rak is probably a pronunciation of Raga According to Hormoz Farhat Rak has no meaning in modern Persian language and the concept of raga is unknown in Persia 43 Carnatic music Edit Main article Carnatic Music Purandara Dasa 1484 1564 was a Hindu composer and musicologist who lived in Hampi of the Vijayanagara Empire 44 45 He is considered Pithamaha literally grandfather of the Carnatic music Purandara Dasa was a monk and a devotee of the Hindu god Krishna Vishnu Vittal avatar 44 He systematised classical Indian music theory and developed exercises for musicians to learn and perfect their art He travelled widely sharing and teaching his ideas and influenced numerous South Indian and Maharashtra Bhakti movement musicians 46 These exercises his teachings about raga and his systematic methodology called Suladi Sapta Tala literally primordial seven talas remains in use in contemporary times 45 47 The efforts of Purandara Dasa in the 16th century began the Carnatic style of Indian classical music 46 Saraswati is the goddess of music and knowledge in the Indian tradition Carnatic music from South India tends to be more rhythmically intensive and structured than Hindustani music Examples of this are the logical classification of ragas into melakartas and the use of fixed compositions similar to Western classical music Carnatic raga elaborations are generally much faster in tempo and shorter than their equivalents in Hindustani music In addition accompanists have a much larger role in Carnatic concerts than in Hindustani concerts Today s typical concert structure was put in place by the vocalist Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar The opening piece is called a varnam and is a warm up for the musicians A devotion and a request for a blessing follows then a series of interchanges between ragams unmetered melody and Tanam the ornamentation within a melorhythmic cycle equivalent to the jor This is intermixed with hymns called krithis The pallavi or theme from the raga then follows Carnatic pieces also have notated lyrical poems that are reproduced as such possibly with embellishments and treatments according to the performer s ideology referred to as Manodharmam citation needed Primary themes include worship descriptions of temples philosophy and nayaka nayika Sanskrit hero heroine themes Tyagaraja 1759 1847 Muthuswami Dikshitar 1776 1827 and Syama Sastri 1762 1827 have been the important historic scholars of Carnatic music According to Eleanor Zelliot Tyagaraja is known in the Carnatic tradition as one of its greatest composers and he reverentially acknowledged the influence of Purandara Dasa 46 A common belief is that Carnatic music represents a more ancient and refined approach to classical music whereas Hindustani music has evolved by external influences 48 Hindustani music Edit Main article Hindustani classical music The 16th century musician Tansen who about the age of 60 joined the Mughal Akbar court For many Hindustani music gharanas schools he is their founder It is unclear when the process of differentiation of Hindustani music started The process may have started in the 14th century courts of the Delhi Sultans However according to Jairazbhoy the North Indian tradition likely acquired its modern form after the 14th or after the 15th century 49 The development of Hindustani music reached a peak during the reign of Akbar During this 16th century period Tansen studied music and introduced musical innovations for about the first sixty years of his life with patronage of the Hindu king Ram Chand of Gwalior and thereafter performed at the Muslim court of Akbar 50 51 Many musicians consider Tansen as the founder of Hindustani music 52 Tansen s style and innovations inspired many and many modern gharanas Hindustani music teaching houses link themselves to his lineage 53 The Muslim courts discouraged Sanskrit and encouraged technical music Such constraints led Hindustani music to evolve in a different way than Carnatic music 53 54 Hindustani music style is mainly found in North India Pakistan and Bangladesh It exists in four major forms Dhrupad Khyal or Khayal Tarana and the semi classical Thumri 55 Dhrupad is ancient Khyal evolved from it Thumri evolved from Khyal 56 There are three major schools of Thumri Lucknow gharana Banaras gharana and Punjabi gharana These weave in folk music innovations 55 Tappa is the most folksy one which likely existed in Rajasthan and Punjab region before it was systematized and integrated into classical music structure It became popular with the Bengali musicians developing their own Tappa 57 Khyal is the modern form of Hindustani music and the term literally means imagination It is significant because it was the template for Sufi musicians among the Islamic community of India and Qawwals sang their folk songs in the Khyal format 58 Dhrupad or Dhruvapad the ancient form described in the Hindu text Natyashastra 59 is one of the core forms of classical music found all over the Indian subcontinent The word comes from Dhruva which means immovable and permanent 60 56 A Dhrupad has at least four stanzas called Sthayi or Asthayi Antara Sanchari and Abhoga The Sthayi part is a melody that uses the middle octave s first tetrachord and the lower octave notes 56 The Antara part uses the middle octave s second tetrachord and the higher octave notes 56 The Sanchari part is the development phase which builds using parts of Sthayi and Antara already played and it uses melodic material built with all the three octave notes 56 The Abhoga is the concluding section that brings the listener back to the familiar starting point of Sthayi albeit with rhythmic variations with diminished notes like a gentle goodbye that are ideally mathematical fractions such as dagun half tigun third or chaugun fourth 61 Sometimes a fifth stanza called Bhoga is included Though usually related to philosophical or Bhakti emotional devotion to a god or goddess themes some Dhrupads were composed to praise kings 60 61 Improvisation is of central importance to Hindustani music and each gharana school tradition has developed its own techniques At its core it starts with a standard composition bandish then expands it in a process called vistar The improvisation methods have ancient roots and one of the more common techniques is called Alap which is followed by the Jor and Jhala The Alap explores possible tonal combinations among other things Jor explores speed or tempo faster while Jhala explores complex combinations like a fishnet of strokes while keeping the beat patterns 62 As with Carnatic music Hindustani music has assimilated various folk tunes For example ragas such as Kafi and Jaijaiwanti are based on folk tunes citation needed Persian and Arab influences Edit Hindustani music has had Arab and Persian music influences including the creation of new ragas and the development of instruments such as the sitar and sarod 42 The nature of these influences are unclear Scholars have attempted to study Arabic maqam also spelled makam of Arabian peninsula Turkey and northern Africa and dastgah of Iran to discern the nature and extent 63 64 Through the colonial era and until the 1960s the attempt was to theoretically study ragas and maqams and suggested commonalities Later comparative musicology studies states Bruno Nettl a professor of Music have found the similarities between classical Indian music and European music as well raising the question about the point of similarities and of departures between the different world music systems 63 64 One of the earliest known discussions of Persian maqam and Indian ragas is by the late 16th century scholar Pundarika Vittala He states that Persian maqams in use in his times had been derived from older Indian ragas or mela and he specifically maps over a dozen maqam For example Vittala states that the Hijaz maqam was derived from the Asaveri raga and Jangula was derived from the Bangal 65 66 In 1941 Haidar Rizvi questioned this and stated that influence was in the other direction Middle Eastern maqams were turned into Indian ragas such as Zangulah maqam becoming Jangla raga 67 According to John Baily a professor of Ethnomusicology there is evidence that the traffic of musical ideas were both ways because Persian records confirm that Indian musicians were a part of the Qajar court in Tehran 68 an interaction that continued through the 20th century with import of Indian musical instruments in cities such as Herat near Afghanistan Iran border 69 Features Edit Indian classical music performances Classical Indian music is a genre of South Asian music the other being film various varieties of pop regional folk religious and devotional music 1 In Indian classical music the raga and the tala are two foundational elements The raga forms the fabric of a melodic structure and the tala keeps the time cycle 8 Both raga and tala are open frameworks for creativity and allow a very large number of possibilities however the tradition considers a few hundred ragas and talas as basic 70 Raga is intimately related to tala or guidance about division of time with each unit called a matra beat and duration between beats 71 Raga Edit Main article Raga A raga is a central concept of Indian music predominant in its expression According to Walter Kaufmann though a remarkable and prominent feature of Indian music a definition of raga cannot be offered in one or two sentences 72 Raga may be roughly described as a musical entity that includes note intonation relative duration and order in a manner similar to how words flexibly form phrases to create an atmosphere of expression 73 In some cases certain rules are considered obligatory in others optional The raga allows flexibility where the artist may rely on simple expression or may add ornamentations yet express the same essential message but evoke a different intensity of mood 73 A raga has a given set of notes on a scale ordered in melodies with musical motifs 9 A musician playing a raga states Bruno Nettl may traditionally use just these notes but is free to emphasize or improvise certain degrees of the scale 9 The Indian tradition suggests a certain sequencing of how the musician moves from note to note for each raga in order for the performance to create a rasa mood atmosphere essence inner feeling that is unique to each raga A raga can be written on a scale Theoretically thousands of raga are possible given 5 or more notes but in practical use the classical Indian tradition has refined and typically relies on several hundred 9 For most artists their basic perfected repertoire has some forty to fifty ragas 74 Raga in Indian classical music is intimately related to tala or guidance about division of time with each unit called a matra beat and duration between beats 71 A raga is not a tune because the same raga can yield a very large number of tunes 75 A raga is not a scale because many ragas can be based on the same scale 75 76 A raga states Bruno Nettl and other music scholars is a concept similar to mode something between the domains of tune and scale and it is best conceptualized as a unique array of melodic features mapped to and organized for a unique aesthetic sentiment in the listener 75 The goal of a raga and its artist is to create rasa essence feeling atmosphere with music as classical Indian dance does with performance arts In the Indian tradition classical dances are performed with music set to various ragas 77 Tala Edit Main article Tala music According to David Nelson an Ethnomusicology scholar specializing in Carnatic music a tala in Indian music covers the whole subject of musical meter 78 Indian music is composed and performed in a metrical framework a structure of beats that is a tala A tala measures musical time in Indian music However it does not imply a regular repeating accent pattern instead its hierarchical arrangement depends on how the musical piece is supposed to be performed 78 The tala forms the metrical structure that repeats in a cyclical harmony from the start to end of any particular song or dance segment making it conceptually analogous to meters in Western music 78 However talas have certain qualitative features that classical European musical meters do not For example some talas are much longer than any classical Western meter such as a framework based on 29 beats whose cycle takes about 45 seconds to complete when performed Another sophistication in talas is the lack of strong weak beat composition typical of the traditional European meter In classical Indian traditions the tala is not restricted to permutations of strong and weak beats but its flexibility permits the accent of a beat to be decided by the shape of musical phrase 78 The most widely used tala in the South Indian system is adi tala 79 In the North Indian system the most common tala is teental 80 In the two major systems of classical Indian music the first count of any tala is called sam 80 Instruments Edit Main articles Indian musical instruments and Vadya Musical instrument types mentioned in the Natyashastra 81 24 Instruments typically used in Hindustani music include the sitar sarod surbahar esraj veena tanpura bansuri shehnai sarangi violin santoor pakhavaj and tabla 82 Instruments typically used in Carnatic music include veena venu gottuvadyam harmonium mridangam kanjira ghatam nadaswaram and violin 83 Players of the tabla a type of drum usually keep the rhythm an indicator of time in Hindustani music Another common instrument is the stringed tanpura which is played at a steady tone a drone throughout the performance of the raga and which provides both a point of reference for the musician and a background against which the music stands out The tuning of the tanpura depends on the raga being performed The task of playing the tanpura traditionally falls to a student of the soloist Other instruments for accompaniment include the sarangi and the harmonium 82 Notation system Edit Indian classical music is both elaborate and expressive Like Western classical music it divides the octave into 12 semitones of which the 7 basic notes are in ascending tonal order Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni for Hindustani music and Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni for Carnatic music similar to Western music s Do Re Mi Fa So La Si However Indian music uses just intonation tuning unlike some modern Western classical music which uses the equal temperament tuning system Also unlike modern Western classical music Indian classical music places great emphasis on improvisation citation needed The underlying scale may have four five six or seven tones called swaras sometimes spelled as svaras The swara concept is found in the ancient Natya Shastra in Chapter 28 It calls the unit of tonal measurement or audible unit as Shruti 84 with verse 28 21 introducing the musical scale as follows 85 तत र स वर षड जश च ऋषभश च व ग न ध र मध यमस तथ पञ चम ध वतश च व सप तम ऽथ न ष दव न २१ Natya Shastra 28 21 86 87 These seven degrees are shared by both major raga systems that is the North Indian Hindustani and South Indian Carnatic systems 88 The solfege sargam is learnt in abbreviated form sa ri Carnatic or re Hindustani ga ma pa dha ni sa Of these the first that is sa and the fifth that is pa are considered anchors that are unalterable while the remaining have flavors that differs between the two major systems 88 Contemporary Indian music schools follow notations and classifications see melakarta and thaat These are generally based on a flawed but still useful notation system created by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande citation needed Reception outside India EditAccording to Yukteshwar Kumar elements of Indian music arrived in China in the 3rd century such as in the works of Chinese lyricist Li Yannian 89 In 1958 Ravi Shankar came to the US and started making albums These started a 1960s penchant for Indian classical music in the States By 1967 Shankar and other artists were performing at rock music festivals alongside Western rock blues and soul acts This lasted until the mid 1970s Ravi Shankar performed at Woodstock for an audience of over 500 000 in 1969 In the 1980s 1990s and particularly the 2000s onwards Indian Classical Music has seen rapid growth in reception and development around the globe particularly in North America where immigrant communities have preserved and passed on classical music traditions to subsequent generations through the establishment of local festivals and music schools 90 Numerous musicians of American origin including Ramakrishnan Murthy Sandeep Narayan Pandit Vikash Maharaj Sandeep Narayan Abby V and Mahesh Kale have taken professionally to Indian Classical Music with great success In his 2020 released video Canadian singer Abby V demonstrated 73 different Indian Classical ragas in a live rendering which went viral on the internet further establishing the growing prominence of Indian Classical Music around the globe 91 Organizations EditSPIC MACAY established in 1977 has more than 500 chapters in India and abroad SPIC MACAY claims to hold around 5000 events every year related to Indian classical music and dance 92 Prayag Sangeet Samiti is also a well established organization promoting Indian Classical Music See also Edit India portal Music portalList of Indian classical music festivals List of ragas in Indian classical musicReferences Edit a b Nettl et al 1998 pp 573 574 a b c Sorrell amp Narayan 1980 pp 3 4 Sorrell amp Narayan 1980 pp 4 5 Rowell 2015 pp 9 10 59 61 Beck 2012 pp 107 108 Quote The tradition of Indian classical music and dance known as Sangeeta is fundamentally rooted in the sonic and musical dimensions of the Vedas Sama veda Upanishads and the Agamas such that Indian music has been nearly always religious in character a b Rens Bod 2013 A New History of the Humanities The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present Oxford University Press p 116 ISBN 978 0 19 164294 4 Reginald Massey Jamila Massey 1996 The Music Of India Abhinav Publications p 42 ISBN 978 81 7017 332 8 Retrieved 23 July 2013 a b Sorrell amp Narayan 1980 pp 1 3 a b c d Nettl 2010 James B Robinson 2009 Hinduism Infobase Publishing pp 104 106 ISBN 978 1 4381 0641 0 Vijaya Moorthy 2001 Romance of the Raga Abhinav Publications pp 45 48 53 56 58 ISBN 978 81 7017 382 3 Austin IFA Introduction to Carnatic Music www austinifa org Retrieved 30 July 2018 Music Ravi Shankar Retrieved 30 July 2018 Music GCSE Indian music and Gamelan www trinity nottingham sch uk Retrieved 30 July 2018 Rowell 2015 p 9 William Forde Thompson 2014 Music in the Social and Behavioral Sciences An Encyclopedia Sage Publications pp 1693 1694 ISBN 978 1 4833 6558 9 Beck 1993 pp 107 109 Quote it is generally agreed that Indian music indeed owes its beginnings to the chanting of the Sama Veda the vast collection of verses Sama many from the Rig veda itself set to melody and sung by singer priests known as udgata Frits Staal 2009 Discovering the Vedas Origins Mantras Rituals Insights Penguin ISBN 978 0 14 309986 4 pp 4 5 a b Rowell 2015 pp 59 61 Rowell 2015 pp 62 63 Rowell 2015 pp 11 14 a b Rowell 2015 pp 11 12 Rowell 2015 pp 12 13 a b c Rowell 2015 pp 13 14 a b Rowell 2015 p 14 S S Sastri 1943 Sangitaratnakara of Sarngadeva Adyar Library Press ISBN 0 8356 7330 8 pp v vi ix x English for talas discussion see pp 169 274 Sanskrit a b Rens Bod 2013 A New History of the Humanities The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present Oxford University Press p 116 ISBN 978 0 19 164294 4 Rowell 2015 pp 12 14 Nettl et al 1998 p 299 Lisa Owen 2012 Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora Brill Academic pp 76 77 ISBN 978 90 04 20629 8 Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar 2003 Ellora Oxford University Press p 35 ISBN 978 0 19 565458 5 a b c d e Gautam 1993 pp 1 10 Nettl et al 1998 pp 37 46 Te Nijenhuis 1974 pp 3 4 Ludo Rocher 1986 The kakkas Puraṇas Otto Harrassowitz Verlag pp 151 152 ISBN 978 3 447 02522 5 A A Bake 1962 Review Textes des Puraṇas sur la Theorie musicale by Alain Danielou N R Bhatt Indo Iranian Journal BRILL Academic Volume 5 Number 2 1961 62 pp 157 160 Randel 2003 p 813 Schwartz 2004 Sastri 1943 Te Nijenhuis 1974 p 7 Jairazbhoy 1995 pp 16 17 a b Te Nijenhuis 1974 p 80 Hormoz Farhat 2004 The Dastgah Concept in Persian Music Cambridge University Press pp 97 99 ISBN 978 0 521 54206 7 a b Ramesh N Rao Avinash Thombre 2015 Intercultural Communication The Indian Context Sage Publications pp 69 70 ISBN 978 93 5150 507 5 a b Joseph P Swain 2016 Historical Dictionary of Sacred Music Rowman amp Littlefield pp 228 229 ISBN 978 1 4422 6463 2 a b c Bardwell L Smith 1982 Hinduism New Essays in the History of Religions Brill Academic pp 153 154 ISBN 978 90 04 06788 2 Nettl et al 1998 pp 139 141 Danielou Alan 2014 The ragas of Northern Indian music New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal p 5 ISBN 978 81 215 0225 2 OCLC 39028809 Jairazbhoy 1995 pp 15 17 Bonnie C Wade 1998 Imaging Sound An Ethnomusicological Study of Music Art and Culture in Mughal India University of Chicago Press pp 108 114 ISBN 978 0 226 86841 7 Edmour J Babineau 1979 Love of God and Social Duty in the Ramcaritmanas Motilal Banarsidass p 54 ISBN 978 0 89684 050 8 Bruno Nettl 1995 Heartland Excursions Ethnomusicological Reflections on Schools of Music University of Illinois Press p 68 ISBN 978 0 252 06468 5 Quote This is a recital of the identities of their teachers perhaps the teachers own teachers and association with gharanas or schools of musicianship and often an attempt to link the main performer of the day through student teacher genealogies to one of the early great figures of music such as the revered Tansen the mythical culture hero and founder of Hindustani music a b Andrea L Stanton Edward Ramsamy Peter J Seybolt et al 2012 Cultural Sociology of the Middle East Asia and Africa An Encyclopedia Sage Publications p 125 ISBN 978 1 4522 6662 6 Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy 1975 Arthur Llewellyn Basham ed A Cultural History Of India Oxford University Press pp 212 215 ISBN 978 0 19 821914 9 a b Caudhuri 2000 p 152 a b c d e Te Nijenhuis 1974 pp 80 81 Caudhuri 2000 p 146 Caudhuri 2000 pp 54 55 Te Nijenhuis 1974 pp 81 82 a b Caudhuri 2000 pp 33 34 a b Te Nijenhuis 1974 pp 80 82 Nettl et al 1998 pp 198 199 a b Bruno Nettl 2016 George E Lewis and Benjamin Piekut ed The Oxford Handbook of Critical Improvisation Studies Oxford University Press pp 176 178 ISBN 978 0 19 989292 1 a b Dorothea E Hast James R Cowdery Stanley Arnold Scott 1999 Exploring the World of Music Kendall Hunt pp 124 126 ISBN 978 0 7872 7154 1 Gautam 1993 pp 8 9 Jairazbhoy 1995 pp 94 95 S N Haidar Rizvi 1941 Music in Muslim India Islamic Culture Volume XV Number 3 pp 331 340 John Baily 2011 Songs from Kabul The Spiritual Music of Ustad Amir Mohammad Ashgate Publishing pp 6 7 ISBN 978 0 7546 5776 7 John Baily 1988 Music of Afghanistan Professional Musicians in the City of Herat Cambridge University Press pp 18 19 ISBN 978 0 521 25000 9 Rao Suvarnalata Rao Preeti 2014 An Overview of Hindustani Music in the Context of Computational Musicology Journal of New Music Research 43 1 26 28 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 645 9188 doi 10 1080 09298215 2013 831109 S2CID 36631020 a b van der Meer 2012 pp 6 8 Kaufmann 1968 p v a b van der Meer 2012 pp 3 5 van der Meer 2012 p 5 a b c Nettl et al 1998 p 67 Martinez 2001 pp 95 96 Mehta 1995 pp xxix 248 a b c d Nettl et al 1998 pp 138 139 Randel 2003 pp 816 817 a b Ellen Koskoff 2013 The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 2 Routledge pp 938 939 ISBN 978 1 136 09602 0 Rachel Van M Baumer James R Brandon 1993 Sanskrit Drama in Performance Motilal Banarsidass pp 117 118 ISBN 978 81 208 0772 3 a b Roda Allen April 2009 Musical Instruments of the Indian Subcontinent Metropolitan Museum of Art Carnatic Music Karnataka Sangeetha Karnataka Tourism Retrieved 29 October 2022 Te Nijenhuis 1974 p 14 Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy 1985 Harmonic Implications of Consonance and Dissonance in Ancient Indian Music Pacific Review of Ethnomusicology 2 28 51 Citation on pp 28 31 Sanskrit Natyasastra Chapter 28 न ट यश स त रम अध य य २८ २१ Te Nijenhuis 1974 pp 21 25 a b Randel 2003 pp 814 815 A History of Sino Indian Relations 1st Century A D to 7th Century A D by Yukteshwar Kumar APH Publishing p 76 ISBN 978 8176487986 Bennett Geetha Ramanathan 23 December 2010 Carnatic music in America then and now The Hindu ISSN 0971 751X Retrieved 5 February 2021 Abby V Carnatic Ragas have so much versatility https timesofindia indiatimes com entertainment tamil music carnatic ragas have so much versatility abby v articleshow 74243055 cms About Spic Macay and Indian classical music SPIC MACAY Bibliography Edit Beck Guy 1993 Sonic Theology Hinduism and Sacred Sound Columbia University of South Carolina Press ISBN 978 0 87249 855 6 Beck Guy L 2012 Sonic Liturgy Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition Columbia University of South Carolina Press ISBN 978 1 61117 108 2 Bhatkhande Vishnu Narayan 1968 73 Kramika Pustaka Malika Hathras Sangeet Karyalaya Bor Joep 1999 The Raga Guide Charlottesville VA Nimbus Records Brown Sara Black 2014 Krishna Christians and Colors The Socially Binding Influence of Kirtan Singing at a Utah Hare Krishna Festival Ethnomusicology 58 3 454 480 doi 10 5406 ethnomusicology 58 3 0454 Caudhuri Vimalakanta Roya 2000 The Dictionary of Hindustani Classical Music Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1708 1 Dace Wallace 1963 The Concept of Rasa in Sanskrit Dramatic Theory Educational Theatre Journal 15 3 249 254 doi 10 2307 3204783 JSTOR 3204783 Danielou Alain 1949 Northern Indian Music Volume 1 Theory amp technique Volume 2 The main ragǎs London C Johnson OCLC 851080 Forster Cris 2010 Musical Mathematics On the Art and Science of Acoustic Instruments Chronicle ISBN 978 0 8118 7407 6 Indian Music Ancient Beginnings Natyashastra Gautam M R 1993 Evolution of Raga and Tala in Indian Music Munshiram Manoharlal ISBN 978 81 215 0442 3 Jairazbhoy Nazir Ali 1995 The Rags of North Indian Music Their Structure amp Evolution first revised Indian ed Bombay Popular Prakashan ISBN 978 81 7154 395 3 Kaufmann Walter 1968 The Ragas of North India Oxford amp Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 34780 0 OCLC 11369 Lal Ananda 2004 The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 564446 3 Lavezzoli Peter 2006 The Dawn of Indian Music in the West New York Continuum ISBN 978 0 8264 1815 9 Lidova Natalia 2014 Natyashastra Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 obo 9780195399318 0071 Martinez Jose Luiz 2001 Semiosis in Hindustani Music Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1801 9 Mehta Tarla 1995 Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1057 0 Moutal Patrick 2012 Hindustani Raga Index Major bibliographical references descriptions compositions vistara s on North Indian Raga s ISBN 978 2 9541244 3 8 Moutal Patrick 2012 Comparative Study of Selected Hindustani Ragas ISBN 978 2 9541244 2 1 Nettl Bruno 2010 Raga Indian Musical Genre Encyclopaedia Britannica Nettl Bruno Ruth M Stone James Porter Timothy Rice 1998 The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music South Asia the Indian subcontinent Routledge ISBN 978 0 8240 4946 1 Randel Don Michael 2003 The Harvard Dictionary of Music fourth ed Cambridge MA Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 01163 2 Ries Raymond E 1969 The Cultural Setting of South Indian Music Asian Music 1 2 22 31 doi 10 2307 833909 JSTOR 833909 Rowell Lewis 2015 Music and Musical Thought in Early India University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 73034 9 Sastri S S ed 1943 Sangitaratnakara of Sarngadeva Adyar Adyar Library Press ISBN 978 0 8356 7330 3 Schwartz Susan L 2004 Rasa Performing the Divine in India Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 13144 5 Sorrell Neil Narayan Ram 1980 Indian Music in Performance A Practical Introduction Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 0756 9 Te Nijenhuis Emmie 1974 Indian Music History and Structure Brill Academic ISBN 978 90 04 03978 0 Tenzer Michael 2006 Analytical Studies in World Music Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 517789 3 van der Meer W 2012 Hindustani Music in the 20th Century Springer ISBN 978 94 009 8777 7 Vatsyayan Kapila 1977 Classical Indian dance in literature and the arts PDF Sangeet Natak Akademi OCLC 233639306 Vatsyayan Kapila 2008 Aesthetic theories and forms in Indian tradition Munshiram Manoharlal ISBN 978 81 87586 35 7 OCLC 286469807 Wilke Annette Moebus Oliver 2011 Sound and Communication An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 024003 0 Winternitz Maurice 2008 History of Indian Literature Vol 3 Original in German published in 1922 translated into English by VS Sarma 1981 New Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0056 4 Ludwig Pesch The Oxford Illustrated Companion to South Indian Classical Music Oxford University Press George E Ruckert Music in North India Experiencing Music Expressing Culture Oxford University Press T Viswanathan and Matthew Harp Allen Music in South India The Karnatak Concert Tradition and Beyond Experiencing Music Expressing Culture Oxford University Press Martin Clayton Time in Indian Music Rhythm Metre and Form in North Indian Rag Performance Oxford University Press Moutal Patrick 2012 Comparative Study of Hindustani Raga s Volume I Patrick Moutal Publisher Rouen ISBN 978 2 9541244 2 1 Moutal Patrick 2012 Hindustani Raga s Index Major bibliographical references descriptions compositions vistara s on North Indian Raga s Rouen Patrick Moutal Publisher ISBN 978 2 9541244 3 8 Charles Russel Day 1891 The Music and Musical Instruments of southern India and the Deccan William Gibb lllus Novello Ewer amp Co London External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Classical music of India Wikiquote has quotations related to Indian classical music Rajan Parrikar Music Archive includes detailed articles on Indian classical music with analyses and audio extracts from rare recordings Vijaya Parrikar Library of Indian Classical Music Library contains recorded music of India s great music masters of yesteryear excerpts of old hard to find or unpublished recordings Hindustani Rag Sangeet Online more than 800 audio and video archives Raag Hindustani Explanations and examples of Indian Classical Hindustani music Classical Indian music SPIC MACAY Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Indian classical music amp oldid 1133102147, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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