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History of Indigenous Australians

The history of Indigenous Australians began at least 65,000 years ago when humans first populated the Australian continental landmasses.[1] This article covers the history of Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples, two broadly defined groups which each include other sub-groups defined by language and culture.

The origin of the first humans to populate the southern continent and the pieces of land which became islands as ice receded and sea levels rose remains a matter of conjecture and debate. Some anthropologists believe they could have arrived as a result of the earliest human migrations out of Africa. Although they likely migrated to the territory later named Australia through Southeast Asia, Aboriginal Australians are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Melanesian population, although Torres Strait Islander people do have a genetic link to some Melanesian populations. There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day New Guinea and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and intermarriage.[2]

Estimates of the number of people living in Australia at the time that colonisation began in 1788, who belonged to a range of diverse groups, vary from 300,000 to a million,[3] and upper estimates place the total population as high as 1.25 million.[4] A cumulative population of 1.6 billion people has been estimated to have lived in Australia over 65,000 years prior to British colonisation.[5] The regions of heaviest Aboriginal population were the same temperate coastal regions that are currently the most heavily populated, the Murray River valley in particular. The population shrank from those present when colonisation began in New South Wales in 1788, to 50,000 in 1930. This drastic reduction in numbers has been attributed to outbreaks of smallpox and other diseases,[6][7] but other sources have described the extent of frontier clashes and in some cases, deliberate killings of Aboriginal peoples.[8]

Post-colonisation, the coastal Indigenous populations were soon absorbed, exterminated,[9] depleted or forced from their lands; the traditional aspects of Aboriginal life which remained persisted most strongly in areas such as the Great Sandy Desert where European settlement has been sparse. Although the Aboriginal Tasmanians were almost driven to extinction (and once thought to be so), other Aboriginal Australian peoples maintained successful communities throughout Australia.

Migration to Australia Edit

 
The ancient continents of Sundaland and Sahul

It is believed that early human migration to Australia was achieved when it formed part of the Sahul continent, connected to the island of New Guinea via a land bridge.[10] This would have nevertheless required crossing the sea at the so-called Wallace Line.[11] It is also possible that people came by island-hopping via an island chain between Sulawesi and New Guinea, reaching North Western Australia via Timor.[12]

A 2021 study which mapped likely migration routes suggests that the populating of the Sahul took 5,000–6,000 years to reach Tasmania (then part of the continent),[13] with a rate of one kilometre per year,[14] after making landfall in the Kimberley region of Western Australia around 60,000 years ago.[13] The total human population could have been as high as 6.4 million, with 3 million in the area of modern Australia.[14] The modelling suggests that the path of population movement may have followed two main routes down from contemporary New Guinea, with the so-called "southern route" going into Kimberley, Pilbara and Arnhem Land, and then to the Great Sandy Desert before moving towards the centre in Lake Eyre and further on to the southeast of the continent. It also leads through another path to the southwestern parts, such as Margaret River and the Nullarbor Plain. The "northern route" meanwhile crosses over the current location of the Torres Strait and then divides into one path connecting to Arnhem Land and another leading down the East Coast.[15] The routes are similar to current highways and stock routes in Australia.[13]

Madjedbebe is the oldest known site showing the presence of humans in Australia, with evidence suggesting that it was first occupied by humans possibly by 65,000 ± 6,000 years ago and at least by 50,000 years ago.[16][17] The rock shelters at Madjedbebe (about 50 kilometres (31 mi) inland from the present coast)[18] and at Nauwalabila I (70 kilometres (43 mi) further south) show evidence of used pieces of ochre used by artists 60,000 years ago. Near Penrith, stone tools have been found in Cranebrook Terraces gravel sediments having dates of 45,000 to 50,000 years BP.[19][20] In 1999 Charles Dortch dated chert and calcrete flake stone tools found on Rottnest Island, Western Australia, at 70,000 years BP.[21][22] A 2018 study using archaeobotany dated evidence of human habitation at Karnatukul (Serpent's Glen) in the Carnarvon Range in the Little Sandy Desert in WA at around 50,000 years, which was 20,000 earlier than previously believed.[23][24][25] There is also evidence of a change in fire régimes in Australia, drawn from reef deposits in Queensland, between 70 and 100,000 years ago,[26] and the integration of human genomic evidence from various parts of the world also supports a date of before 60,000 years for the arrival of Australian Aboriginal people in the continent.[27][28]

Humans reached Tasmania approximately 40,000 years ago by migrating across a land bridge from the mainland that existed during the last glacial maximum. After the seas rose about 12,000 years ago and covered the land bridge, the inhabitants there were isolated from the mainland until the arrival of European settlers.[29]

Short-statured Aboriginal tribes inhabited the rainforests of North Queensland, of which the best known group is probably the Tjapukai of the Cairns area.[30] These rainforest people, collectively referred to as Barrineans, were once considered to be a relic of an earlier wave of Negrito migration to the Australian continent,[31] but this "Aboriginal pygmy" theory has been discredited.[32]

Mungo Man, found near Lake Mungo in New South Wales, is the oldest human yet found in Australia. Although the exact age of Mungo Man is in dispute, the best consensus is that he is at least 40,000 years old. Stone tools also found at Lake Mungo have been estimated, based on stratigraphic association, to be about 50,000 years old. Since Lake Mungo is in south-eastern Australia, many archaeologists have concluded that humans must have arrived in north-west Australia at least several thousand years earlier.

Changes around 4,000 years ago Edit

The dingo reached Australia about 4,000 years ago – thought to have been brought here by Asian seafarers – and is believed to have led to the extinction of the thylacine in mainland Australia. Around the same time there were changes in language, with the Pama-Nyungan language family spreading over most of the mainland, and stone tool technology, with the use of smaller tools. Human contact has thus been inferred, and genetic data of two kinds have been proposed to support a gene flow from India to Australia: first, signs of South Asian components in Aboriginal Australian genomes, reported on the basis of genome-wide SNP data; and secondly, the existence of a Y chromosome (male) lineage, designated haplogroup C∗, with the most recent common ancestor around 5,000 years ago.[33]

A 2013 study by researchers at the Max Planck Institute led by Irina Pugach, the result of large-scale genotyping, indicated that Aboriginal Australians, the indigenous peoples of New Guinea and the Mamanwa, an indigenous people of the southern Philippines are closely related, having diverged from a common origin approximately 36,000 years ago. The same study shows that Aboriginal genomes consist of up to 11% Indian DNA which is uniformly spread through Northern Australia, indicating a substantial gene flow between Indian populations and Northern Australia occurred around 4,230 years ago. Changes in tool technology and food processing appear in the archaeological record around this time, suggesting there may have been migration from India.[34][35]

However, a 2016 study in Current Biology by Anders Bergström et al. excluded the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia. The study authors sequenced 13 Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes using recent advances in gene sequencing technology, investigating their divergence times from Y chromosomes in other continents, including comparing the haplogroup C chromosomes. The authors concluded that, although this does not disprove the presence of any Holocene gene flow or non-genetic influences from South Asia at that time, and the appearance of the dingo does provide strong evidence for external contacts, the evidence overall is consistent with a complete lack of gene flow, and points to indigenous origins for the technological and linguistic changes. Gene flow across the island-dotted 150-kilometre (93 mi)-wide Torres Strait, is both geographically plausible and demonstrated by the data, although at this point it could not be determined from this study when within the last 10,000 years it may have occurred – newer analytical techniques have the potential to address such questions.[33]

Early history Edit

Geography Edit

 
The shoreline of Tasmania and Victoria about 14,000 years ago, as sea levels were rising, showing some of the human archaeological sites

When the north-west of Australia, which is closest to Asia, was first occupied, the region consisted of open tropical forests and woodlands. After around 10,000 years of stable climatic conditions, by which time the Aboriginal people had settled the entire continent, temperatures began cooling and winds became stronger, leading to the beginning of an ice age. By the glacial maximum, 25,000 to 15,000 years ago, the sea level had dropped to around 140 metres below its present level. Australia was connected to New Guinea and the Kimberley region of Western Australia was separated from Southeast Asia (Wallacea) by a strait only approximately 90 km wide.[36] Rainfall was 40% to 50% lower than modern levels, depending on region, while the lower CO2 levels (half pre-industrial levels) meant that vegetation required twice as much water for photosynthesis.[37]

The Kimberley, including the adjacent exposed continental Sahul Shelf, was covered by vast grasslands dominated by flowering plants of the family Poaceae, with woodlands and semi-arid scrub covering the shelf joining New Guinea to Australia.[38] Southeast of the Kimberley, from the Gulf of Carpentaria to northern Tasmania the land, including the western and southern margins of the now exposed continental shelves, was covered largely by extreme deserts and sand dunes. It is believed that during this period no more than 15% of Australia supported trees of any kind. While some tree cover remained in the southeast of Australia, the vegetation of the wetter coastal areas in this region was semi-arid savanna, while some tropical rainforests survived in isolated coastal areas of Queensland.

Tasmania was covered primarily by cold steppe and alpine grasslands, with snow pines at lower altitudes. There is evidence that there may have been a significant reduction in Australian Aboriginal populations during this time, and there would seem to have been scattered "refugia" in which the modern vegetation types and Aboriginal populations were able to survive. Corridors between these refugia seem to be routes by which people kept in contact.[39][40][41] With the end of the ice age, strong rains returned, until around 5,500 years ago, when the wet season cycle in the north ended, bringing with it a megadrought that lasted 1,500 years. The return of reliable rains around 4,000 years BP gave Australia its current climate.[38]

Following the Ice Age, Aboriginal people around the coast, from Arnhem Land, the Kimberley and the southwest of Western Australia, all tell stories of former territories that were drowned beneath the sea with the rising coastlines. It was this event that isolated the Tasmanian Aboriginal people on their island, and probably led to the extinction of Aboriginal cultures on the Bass Strait Islands and Kangaroo Island in South Australia.[42] In the interior, the end of the Ice Age may have led to the recolonisation of the desert and semi-desert areas by Aboriginal people of the Northern Territory. This in part may have been responsible for the spread of languages of the Pama–Nyungan language family and secondarily responsible for the spread of male initiation rites involving circumcision. There has been a long history of contact between Papuan peoples of the Western Province, Torres Strait Islanders and the Aboriginal people in Cape York.[42]

The Aboriginal Australians lived through great climatic changes and adapted successfully to their changing physical environment. There is much ongoing debate about the degree to which they modified the environment. One controversy revolves around the role of indigenous people in the extinction of the marsupial megafauna (also see Australian megafauna). Some argue that natural climate change killed the megafauna. Others claim that, because the megafauna were large and slow, they were easy prey for human hunters. A third possibility is that human modification of the environment, particularly through the use of fire, indirectly led to their extinction.[citation needed]

Oral history demonstrates "the continuity of culture of Indigenous Australians" for at least 10,000 years. This is shown by correlation of oral history stories with verifiable incidents including known changes in sea levels and their associated large changes in location of ocean shorelines; oral records of megafauna; and comets.[43][44]

Ecology Edit

 
These implements were used only by men. At left, a spear-thrower (called woomera in the Eora language), and two examples of boomerangs. Boomerangs could be used for hunting (most were non-returning), or purely for music and ceremony.

The introduction of the dingo, possibly as early as 3500 BCE, showed that contact with South East Asian peoples continued, as the closest genetic connection to the dingo seems to be the wild dogs of Thailand. This contact was not just one-way, as the presence of kangaroo ticks on these dogs demonstrates. Dingoes began and evolved in Asia. The earliest known dingo-like fossils are from Ban Chiang in north-east Thailand (dated at 5500 years BP) and from north Vietnam (5000 years BP). According to skull morphology, these fossils occupy a place between Asian wolves (prime candidates were the pale footed (or Indian) wolf Canis lupus pallipes and the Arabian wolf Canis lupus arabs) and modern dingoes in Australia and Thailand.[45]

Most scientists presently believe that it was the arrival of the Australian Aboriginal people on the continent and their introduction of fire-stick farming that was responsible for these extinctions.[46] Fossil research published in 2017 indicates that Aboriginal people and megafauna coexisted for "at least 17,000 years". Aboriginal Australians used fire for a variety of purposes: to encourage the growth of edible plants and fodder for prey; to reduce the risk of catastrophic bushfires; to make travel easier; to eliminate pests; for ceremonial purposes; for warfare and just to "clean up country." There is disagreement, however, about the extent to which this burning led to large-scale changes in vegetation patterns.[47]

Food Edit

 
Aboriginal grinding stones—a pestle and mortar—vital in making flours for bush bread. Aboriginal women were experts at making bread from a variety of seasonal grains and nuts.

Aboriginal Australians were limited to the range of foods occurring naturally in their area, but they knew exactly when, where and how to find everything edible. Anthropologists and nutrition experts who have studied the tribal diet in Arnhem Land found it to be well-balanced, with most of the nutrients modern dietitians recommend. But food was not obtained without effort. In some areas both men and women had to spend from half to two-thirds of each day hunting or foraging for food. Each day, the women of the group went into successive parts of one countryside with wooden digging sticks and plaited dilly bags or wooden coolamons. Larger animals and birds, such as kangaroos and emus, were speared or disabled with a thrown club, boomerang, or stone. Many Indigenous hunting devices were used to get within striking distance of prey. The men were excellent trackers and stalkers, approaching their prey running where there was cover, or "freezing" and crawling when in the open. They were careful to stay downwind and sometimes covered themselves with mud to disguise their smell.

Fish were sometimes taken by hand by stirring up the muddy bottom of a pool until they rose to the surface, or by placing the crushed leaves of poisonous plants in the water to stupefy them. Fish spears, nets, wicker or stone traps were also used in different areas. Lines with hooks made from bone, shell, wood or spines were used along the north and east coasts. Dugong, turtle and large fish were harpooned, the harpooner launching himself bodily from the canoe to give added weight to the thrust. Both Torres Strait Island populations and mainland Aboriginal peoples were predominantly hunter & gatherers, who relied on wild foods.[48] However, banana cultivation is now thought to have been practiced amongst Torres Strait Islanders.[49] Aboriginal Australians along the coast and rivers were also expert fishermen. Some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people relied on the dingo as a companion animal, using it to assist with hunting and for warmth on cold nights.

 
Aboriginal women's implements, including a coolamon lined with paperbark and a digging stick. This woven basket style is from Northern Australia. Baskets were used for collecting fruits, corms, seeds and even water – some baskets were woven so tightly as to be watertight.

In present-day Victoria, there were two separate communities who farmed eels in complex and extensive irrigated pond systems; one on the Murray River in the state's north, the other in the south-west near Hamilton in the territory of the Djab Wurrung, which traded with other groups from as far away as the Melbourne area (see Gunditjmara).[citation needed] A primary tool used in hunting is the spear, launched by a woomera or spear-thrower in some locales. Boomerangs were also used by some mainland Indigenous Australians. The non-returnable boomerang (known more correctly as a Throwing Stick), more powerful than the returning kind, could be used to injure or even kill a kangaroo.

In mainland Australia no animal other than the dingo was domesticated, however domestic pigs and cassowaries were utilised by Torres Strait Islanders.[50] The typical Aboriginal diet included a wide variety of foods, including introduced pigs, kangaroo, emu, wombats, goanna, snakes, birds, and many insects such as honey ants, Bogong moths and witchetty grubs. Many varieties of plant foods such as taro, coconuts, nuts, fruits and berries were also eaten.

Culture Edit

 
Lomandra, a plant used by Aboriginal Australians for weaving

Permanent villages were the norm for most Torres Strait Island communities. In some areas mainland Aboriginal Australians also lived in semi-permanent villages, most usually in less arid areas where fishing[48] could provide for a settled existence, with places like Budj Bim in particular growing to comparatively large settlements. Most Indigenous communities were semi-nomadic, moving in a regular cycle over a defined territory, following seasonal food sources and returning to the same places at the same time each year. From the examination of middens, archaeologists have shown that some localities were visited annually by Indigenous communities for thousands of years. In the more arid areas Aboriginal Australians were nomadic, ranging over wide areas in search of scarce food resources. There is evidence of substantial change in indigenous culture over time. Rock painting at several locations in northern Australia has been shown to consist of a sequence of different styles linked to different historical periods. There is also prominent rock paintings found in the Sydney basin area which date to around 5,000 years.

Harry Lourandos has been the leading proponent of the theory that a period of agricultural intensification occurred between 3000 and 1000 BCE. Intensification involved an increase in human manipulation of the environment (for example, the construction of eel traps in Victoria), population growth, an increase in trade between groups, a more elaborate social structure, and other cultural changes. A shift in stone tool technology, involving the development of smaller and more intricate points and scrapers, occurred around this time. This was probably also associated with the introduction to the mainland of the Australian dingo.

Many Indigenous communities also have a very complex kinship structure and in some places strict rules about marriage. In traditional societies, men are required to marry women of a specific moiety. The system is still alive in many Central Australian communities. To enable men and women to find suitable partners, many groups would come together for annual gatherings (commonly known as corroborees) at which goods were traded, news exchanged, and marriages arranged amid appropriate ceremonies. This practice both reinforced clan relationships and prevented inbreeding in a society based on small semi-nomadic groups.

Initiation rites included female genital mutilation,[51] ritual gang raping,[52] penile subincision[53] and the ritual of penis holding (when a man enters a strange camp).[54]

Common occurrences of infanticide (about 30% of newborns were killed as form of population and family size control)[55] and cannibalism[56] are widely documented.

1770–1850s: impact of British colonisation Edit

 
A 19th-century engraving of an Aboriginal Australian encampment, showing the indigenous lifestyle in the cooler parts of Australia at the time of European settlement

The first contact between British explorers and Indigenous Australians came in 1770, when Lieutenant James Cook interacted with the Guugu Yimithirr people around contemporary Cooktown. Cook wrote that he had claimed the east coast of Australia for what was then the Kingdom of Great Britain and named it New South Wales, while on Possession Island off the west coast of Cape York Peninsula.[57] However, it seems that no such claim was made when Cook was in Australia.[58] Cook's orders were to look for "a Continent or Land of great extent" and "with the Consent of the Natives to take possession of Convenient situations in the Country in the name of the King".[59] The British government did not view Aboriginal Australians as the owners of the land as they did not practise farming.[60] British colonisation of Australia began at Port Jackson in 1788 with the arrival of Governor Arthur Phillip and the First Fleet.[61] The Governor was instructed to "by every possible means to open an intercourse with the natives, and to conciliate their affections, enjoining all our subjects to live in amity and kindness with them" and to punish those aiming to "wantonly destroy them".[62]

The immediate reaction of the Eora, who were first to witness it, to colonisation was at first surprise and then aggression.[63] Following this the Eora generally avoided the British for the next two years.[64] They were offended by the British entering their lands and taking advantage of their resources without asking permission, as was customary in Aboriginal society.[62] Some contacts did however occur, with both the Eora and the Tharawal at Botany Bay, including exchanges of gifts.[64] Out of the 17 encounters during the first month, only two involved the Eora entering British settlements.[64] After a year, Phillip decided to capture Indigenous people to teach them English and make them intermediaries, resulting in the kidnappings of Arabanoo and Bennelong, with Phillip getting speared by the latter's companion.[62] Bennelong would eventually travel to England with Phillip and Yemmerrawanne in 1793.[65] A Kuringgai man Bungaree also made voyages with Europeans.[65] Following the lethal spearing of a huntsman, possibly by Pemulwuy, Phillip ordered 10 men (but not women or children) in Botany Bay to be captured and beheaded.[66] None were however found.[66]

 
The Natives of Botany Bay by R. Cleveley (1789)

The first apparent consequence of British settlement appeared in April 1789 when a disease, which was probably smallpox, struck the Aboriginal peoples about Port Jackson.[67] Before the epidemic, the First Fleet had equalled the population of the Eora; after it the settler population was equal to all Indigenous people on the Cumberland Plain; and by 1820, their population of 30,000 was as much of the entire Indigenous populace of New South Wales.[68] A generation after colonization, the Eora, Dharug and Kuringgai had been greatly reduced and were mainly living in the outskirts of European society, though some Indigenous people did continue to live in the coastal regions around Sydney further on, as well as around Georges River and Botany Bay.[69] Further inland, Indigenous peoples were warned of the British invasion after the Cumberland Plain had been taken by 1815, and this information preceded them by hundreds of kilometres.[70] However, by the second generation of contact, many groups in south-eastern Australia were gone.[71] The greatest cause of death was disease, followed by settler and inter-Indigenous killings.[71] This population loss was further exacerbated by an extremely low birth rate.[72] An estimated decline of 80 percent in the population meant that traditional kinship systems and ceremonial obligations became hard to maintain and family and social relations were torn.[73] The survivors came to live on the fringes of European society, living in tents and shacks around towns and riverbanks in poor health.[74]

Aboriginal Tasmanians first came to contact with Europeans when the Baudin expedition to Australia arrived at Adventure Bay in 1802.[75] The French explorers were more friendly to the Indigenous than the British further north.[75] Already earlier, in 1800, European whalers had been to the Bass Strait islands, were they had used kidnapped aboriginal women.[75] The local Indigenous also sold women to the sailors.[76] Later the descendants of these women would be the last survivors of Tasmanian Indigenous people.[71]

Assimilation Edit

The assimilation policy was first started by Governor Macquarie, who established in 1814 the Native Institution in Blacktown "to effect the Civilization of the Aborigines of New South Wales, and to render their Habits more domesticated and industrious" by enrolling children in a residential school.[77] By 1817, 17 were enrolled, one of whom, a girl called Maria, won the first prize in a school exam ahead of European children in 1819.[77] The institution was however closed soon after following Macquarie's replacement for spending.[78] Macquerie also had attempted to settle 16 Kuringgai at George's Head with land, pre-fabricated huts and other supplies, but the families had soon sold the farms and left.[78]

Christian missions were also started at Lake Macquarie in 1827, at Wellington Valley in 1832, and in Port Phillip and Moreton Bay around 1840.[78] These involved learning Indigenous languages, with the Gospel of Luke translated into Awabakal in 1831 by a missionary and Biraban, as well as offering food and sanctuary on the frontier.[79] However, when supplies ran out, the Indigenous would often leave for pastoral stations in search of work.[79] Some missionaries would take children without consent to be taught in dormitories.[65]

 
This portrait of a young Indigenous boy was commissioned by a member of a Christian mission station to show the achievements of the mission at "civilising" the Indigenous population.[80]

The government had started blanket distribution in the 1830s, but ended this in 1844 as a cost-saving measure.[81] It also created Indigenous paramilitary units, called the Australian native police, with these being establish in Port Phillip in 1842, New South Wales in 1848, and in Queensland 1859.[82] Exceptional among these, the Port Phillip force had police powers over white people as well.[83] The forces killed hundreds of (or in the case of Queensland, up to a thousand) Indigenous people.[84]

In 1833, a committee of the British House of Commons, led by Fowell Buxton, demanded better treatment of the Indigenous, referring to them as 'original owners', leading the British government in 1838 to create the office of the Protector of Aborigines.[85] However, this effort ended by 1857.[85] Nevertheless, the humanitarian effort did produce the Waste Land Act of 1848, which gave indigenous people certain rights and reserves on the land.[86]

There was also some assimilation of Europeans into Indigenous cultures. Living with Indigenous people was William Buckley, an escaped convict, who was with the Wautharong people near Melbourne for thirty-two years, before being found in 1835. James Morrill was an English sailor aboard the vessel Peruvian which became shipwrecked off the coast of north-eastern Australia in 1846, was taken in by a local clan of Aboriginal Australians. He adopted their language and customs and lived as a member of their society for 17 years. Indigenous peoples also adopted the European dog widely.[87]

Conflict Edit

 
Governor Davey's proclamation of protection for the Indigenous in Van Diemen's Land, 1816
 
New South Wales Mounted Police killing Aboriginal warriors during the Waterloo Creek massacre, 1838

On the mainland, prolonged conflict followed the frontier of European settlement.[88] An estimated minimum of 40,000 Indigenous Australians and between 2,000 and 2,500 settlers died in the wars. However, recent scholarship on the frontier wars in what is now the state of Queensland indicates that Indigenous fatalities may have been significantly higher. Indeed, while battles and massacres occurred in a number of locations across Australia, they were particularly bloody in Queensland, owing to its comparatively larger pre-contact Indigenous population. It is estimated that up to 3,000 white people were killed by Aboriginal Australians in the frontier violence.[89] Some Indigenous people also allied with the colonists against other Indigenous people.[90] Colonization accelerated fighting between Indigenous groups by causing them to leave their traditional lands as well as by causing deaths by disease which were attributed to enemy sorcery.[91] Indigenous gun ownership was banned in New South Wales in 1840, but this was overturned by the British government as inequality before the law.[87]

In 1790, an Aboriginal leader Pemulwuy in Sydney resisted the Europeans,[92] waging a guerrilla-style warfare on the settlers in a series of wars known as the Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars, which spanned 26 years, from 1790 to 1816.[93] After his death in 1802, his son Tedbury continued the campaign until 1810.[68] The campaign led to the banning of Aboriginal groups of more than six and forbid them from carrying weapons closer to two kilometers from settlements.[68] Beyond the Cumberland Plain, violence erupted first at Bathurst against the Wiradjuri, with martial law declared in 1822 and the 40th Regiment responding.[94] This became known as the Bathurst War.

In Van Diemen's Land, conflict arrived in 1824 after major expansion of settler and sheep numbers, with Indigenous warriors responding by killing 24 Europeans by 1826.[94] In 1828, martial law was declared and bounty parties of settlers took vengeance.[95] On the Indigenous side, Musquito led the Oyster Bay tribe against the settlers.[82] Tarenorerer was another leader. The Black War, fought largely as a guerrilla war by both sides, claimed the lives of 600 to 900 Aboriginal people and more than 200 European colonists, nearly annihilating the island's indigenous population.[96][97] The near-destruction of the Aboriginal Tasmanians, and the frequent incidence of mass killings, has sparked debate among historians over whether the Black War should be defined as an act of genocide.[98]

In Swan River Colony, conflict occurred near Perth, with the government offering the use of the armoury for the settlers.[90] A punitive party was led against the Pindjarup in 1834.[90]

Diseases Edit

Deadly infectious diseases like smallpox, influenza and tuberculosis were always major causes of Aboriginal deaths.[99] Smallpox alone killed more than 50% of the Aboriginal population.[7] Other diseases included dysentery, scarlet fever, typhus, measles, whooping cough and influenza.[100] Sexually transmitted infections were also introduced by colonialism.[100] Health decline was also caused by increasing use of flour and sugar instead of more diverse traditional diets, resulting in malnutrition.[101] Alcohol was also first introduced by colonialism, leading to alcoholism.[102]

In April 1789, a major outbreak of smallpox killed large numbers of Indigenous Australians between Hawkesbury River, Broken Bay, and Port Hacking. Based on information recorded in the journals of some members of the First Fleet, it has been surmised that the Aboriginal peoples of the Sydney region had never encountered the disease before and lacked immunity to it. Unable to understand or counter the sickness, they often fled, leaving the sick with some food and water to fend for themselves. As the clans fled, the epidemic spread further along the coast and into the hinterland. This had a disastrous effect on Aboriginal society; with many of the productive hunters and gatherers dead, those who survived the initial outbreak began to starve.[citation needed]

Some have suggested that Makasar fishermen accidentally brought smallpox to Australia's north and the virus travelled south.[103] However, given that the spread of the disease depends on high population densities, and the fact that those who succumbed were soon incapable of walking, such an outbreak was unlikely to have spread across the desert trade routes.[104] A more likely source of the disease was the "variolas matter" Surgeon John White brought with him on the First Fleet, although it is unknown how this may have been spread.[104] It has also been speculated that the vials were either accidentally or intentionally released as a "biological weapon".[105] In 2014, writing in Journal of Australian Studies, Christopher Warren concluded that British marines were most likely to have spread smallpox, possibly without informing Governor Phillip, but conceded in his conclusion that "today's evidence only provides for a balancing of probabilities and this is all that can be attempted."[106]: 79, 68–86 

Economy and environment Edit

In 1822, the British government reduced duties on Australian wool, leading to an expansion of sheep numbers, followed by increased immigration.[107] The sheep flourished in the arid western plains.[108] The settlers created an ecological revolution, as their cattle ate away local grasses and trampled waterholes, with precious food staples like murnong diminished, and with new weeds spreading.[109] Meat sources like kangaroo and the Australian brushturkey were replaced by cattle.[109] In response, Indigenous peoples would appropriate settler resources, such as taking sheep and raising their own flocks.[109] New economic products also disrupted traditional lifestyles, as for example in the case of the steel axe, which replaced the traditional stone one, resulting in a loss of authority to the older men who traditionally had access to them.[76] The new axes would be given to younger people by settlers and missionaries in exchange for work, also diminishing old trading networks.[76]

Following the loss of lands, Indigenous people 'came in' to pastoral station, missions and towns, often forced by lack of food.[110] Tobacco, tea and sugar were also important in attracting Indigenous people to settlers.[111] After some handouts, work was demanded by the settlers in return for rations, leading to Indigenous employment in cutting timber, herding and shearing sheep, and in stock work.[112] They were also working as fishermen, water carriers, domestic servants, boatmen and whalers.[113] However, European work ethic was not part of their culture, as working beyond the amount necessary for future benefits was seen as not important.[114] Their pay was also unequal to that of settlers, being mostly rations or less than half the wage.[114] Women had previously been the main providers in Indigenous families, but their roles were diminished as men became the main recipients of wages and rations, while women could at most find European-style domestic work or prostitution, leading some to live with European men who had access to resources.[115]

1850s–1940s: northern expansion Edit

 
Aboriginal Bora ceremony (early 20th century)
 
Aboriginals in chains at Wyndham prison, 1902.[116]

By 1850, southern Australia had been settled by the new immigrants and their descendants, except for the Great Victoria Desert, Nullarbor Plain, Simpson Desert, and Channel Country.[117] European explorers had started to venture into these areas, as well as the Top End and Cape York Peninsula.[117] By 1862 they had crossed the continent and entered Kimberley and Pilbara, while consolidating colonial claims in the process.[117] Indigenous reaction to them ranged from assistance to hostility.[117] Any new lands were claimed, mapped and opened to pastoralists, with North Queensland settled in the 1860s, Central Australia and the Northern Territory in the 1870s, Kimberley in the 1880s, and the Wunaamin Miliwundi Ranges after 1900.[117][118] This again led to violent confrontation with the Indigenous peoples.[117] However, because of the dryness and remoteness of the new frontier, settlement and economic development were slower.[119] The European population therefore remained small and consequently more fearful, with few police protecting the Indigenous population.[119] It is estimated that in North Queensland 15 percent of the first wave of pastoralists were killed in Indigenous attacks, while 10 times more of the other side met the same fate.[120] In the Gulf Country, over 400 violent Indigenous deaths were recorded 1872 to 1903.[121]

In the earlier settled southern parts of Australia, an estimated 20,000 Indigenous individuals (10 percent of the total at the beginning of colonization), remained by the 1920s, with half being of mixed ancestry.[122] There about 7000 in New South Wales, 5000 in southern Queensland, 2500 in south-west Western Australia, 1000 in southern South Australia, 500 in Victoria, and under 200 in Tasmania (mostly on Cape Barren Island).[122] One fifth lived in reserves, while most of the rest were in camps around country towns, with small numbers owning farms or living in towns or capital cities.[122] In the country as a whole, there were about 60,000 Indigenous people in 1930.[123]

The Defence Act of 1903 only allowed those of "European origin or descent" to enlist in military service.[124] However, in 1914 around 800 Aboriginal people answered the call to arms to fight in World War I.[125] As the war continued, these restrictions were relaxed as more recruits were needed.[citation needed] Many enlisted by claiming they were Māori or Indian.[126] During World War II, after the threat of Japanese invasion of Australia, Indigenous enlistment was accepted.[127] Up to 3000 individuals of mixed descent served in the military, including Reg Saunders, the first indigenous officer.[128] The Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion, Northern Territory Special Reconnaissance Unit, and the Snake Bay Patrol were also established. Another 3000 civilians worked in labour corps.[128]

Employment, wagelessness and resistance Edit

 
Indigenous Australian stockman at Victoria River Downs Station

Nevertheless, Indigenous workers in the north were able to find jobs better than in south since there was no cheap convict labour available, though they were not paid in wages and were abused.[129] There was a widely held belief that white people could not work in Northern Australia.[130] Pearl hunting employed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander workers, though many were coerced into it.[129] By the 1880s, the introduction of diving suits had reduced Indigenous workers to deckhands.[131] Otherwise Indigenous people congregated at settlements such as Broome (servicing luggers) or Darwin (where 20 percent of the Northern Territory's Indigenous workers were employed).[130] However, in Darwin the Indigenous workers were kept locked up at night.[132] Most of the Indigenous workers in North Queensland, the Northern Territory, and the Kimberley were employed by the cattle industry.[132] Wage payment varied by state. In Queensland, wages were paid from 1901 onwards, being set at a third of white wages in 1911, two-thirds in 1918, and equal in 1930.[133] However, some of the wages were deposited on trust accounts, from which they could be stolen.[133] In the Northern Territory, there was no requirement to pay a wage.[133] Overall, up to the Second World War about half of the Indigenous stockmen received wages, and if so, they were well below the white level.[134] There was also physical abuse of the workers, sometimes including by the police.[135]

On 4 February 1939, Jack Patten led a strike at Cummeragunja Station in New South Wales. The people of Cummeragunja were protesting their harsh treatment under what was a draconian system. A once successful farming enterprise was taken from their control, and residents were forced to subsist on meagre rations. Approximately 200 people left their homes, taking part in the Cummeragunja walk-off, and the majority crossed the border into Victoria, never to return home.[136] Following the rising threat from Empire of Japan, the Australian Army came to the north in the early 1940s, bringing new people and ideas while employing Indigenous workers in defence projects.[137] They were paid a wage and mixed with the regular troops.[137] This led the Northern Territory administration to investigate and recommend paying wages, though it was never enforced.[137] Following meetings held by the white communist Don McLeod in 1942, Indigenous groups in Pilbara decided to go on strike, which they did after the end of the war in the 1946 Pilbara strike.[138] In 1949, they finally won a wage double the size of their original demand, and were encouraged to start their own co-operative based on the mining they had been doing while on strike.[139] Along the war, this event also helped reduce the abuse of Indigenous workers.[140]

Racism and the early civil rights movement Edit

As scientific racism developed from Darwinism (with Charles Darwin himself having claimed after visiting New South Wales that the death of "the Aboriginal" was a consequence of natural selection), the popular view of Indigenous Australians started to see them as inferior.[141] Indigenous Australians were considered in the global scientific community as the world's most primitive humans, leading to trade of human remains and relics.[142] This was especially true of Indigenous Tasmanians, with 120 books and articles written by scholars around the world by the late 19th century.[143] Some Indigenous people were also toured and exhibited around the world as spectacles.[144] However, in the 1930s, physical anthropology was taken over by cultural anthropology, which focused cultural difference over inferiority.[145] Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, the father of modern social anthropology, published his Social Organization of Australian Tribes in 1931.[146]

By 1900 most white Australians held racist views of the Indigenous peoples, and the Constitution of Australia of that year did not count them alongside other Australians in the census.[147] Racist treatment was also encoded in special Acts governing Indigenous peoples separately from the rest of society.[148] Racism also manifested itself in everyday discrimination, which was termed the "colour bar or the caste barrier".[149] This affected life in most settled parts of Australia, though not that much in the capital cities.[149] For example, from the 1890s to 1949, the New South Wales government removed Indigenous children from state schools if non-Indigenous parents objected to their presence, placing them instead to reserve schools with worse education.[149] The same policy was in place in Western Australia, as well, where only one percent of Indigenous children attended state schools.[149] Indigenous residents of New South Wales were also not permitted to buy or drink alcohol.[149] These kinds of restrictions did not apply in Victoria, with a smaller Indigenous population and an assimilationist policy.[149] Furthermore, Indigenous people were often excluded from organisations, businesses, and sports or recreational facilities, such as pools.[149] Employment and housing was difficult to find for them.[149]

Women's groups, such as the Australian Federation of Women Voters and the National Council of Women of Australia, became advocates for Indigenous issues in the 1920s.[150] The first Indigenous political organisation was the Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association, established in 1924, with 11 branches and more than 500 Indigenous members in a year.[151] It had been partly inspired by Marcus Garvey.[151] In 1926, the Native Union in Western Australia was founded.[152] White advocate groups emerged in the 1930s.[150] Other Indigenous organisations included the Euralian Association set up in 1934, the Australian Aborigines' League in 1934, and the Aborigines Progressive Association in 1937.[152] The latter marked Invasion Day on the 150th anniversary of the First Fleet's landing.[152]

Reserves and protection boards Edit

 
Cummeragunja Aboriginal Mission Station in 1893

The only known treaty between Indigenous and European Australians was Batman's Treaty, signed by Billibellary. His son, Simon Wonga, and other Kulin nation leaders requested land in 1859 for cultivation, and were granted 1820 hectares in the Acheron River by the Victorian government.[153] In 1860, the same government established Aboriginal reserves in Coranderrk, Framlingham, Lake Condah, Ebenezer, Ramahyuck, as well as Lake Tyers.[153] Corranderrk was notably successful, becoming practically self-sufficient and winning the first prize for their hops at the Melbourne International Exhibition.[154] Nevertheless, the inhabitants were refused to be given individual land titles or be paid wages.[155] In South Australia, Raukkan and Poonindie were also set up as communities for Indigenous peoples.[156] In New South Wales, such communities included Maloga, Brungle, Warangesda, and Cummeragunja.[157]

However, the reserve system also gave authorities power over Indigenous people, with the Aboriginal Protection Board exercising control over work and wages, adult movement, and child removal in Victoria from 1869 onwards.[158] With the Half-Caste Act of 1886, the Victorian government started removing those with partial European ancestry from the reserves, with the claimed aim to "merge the half-caste population into the general community", which was also followed in New South Wales with the Aborigines Protection Act 1909.[159] This had deleterious consequences for the viability of the communities, leading to their decline.[159] The Queensland Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act of 1897 became a model for Indigenous legislation in Western Australia (1905), South Australia (1911), and the Northern Territory (1911), which gave the authorities power over anyone deemed "Aboriginal" in regards to placing them or their children in reserves, denying voting rights or the ability to buy alcohol, as well as prohibiting interracial sexual relations (requiring a ministerial permission for interracial marriage).[160]

The reserves were subsequently mostly reduced, closed and sold off by the 1920s.[161] Meanwhile, the Protection Boards became more powerful in 1915 in New South Wales after new legislation gave them the power to remove children of mixed ancestry without parental or court approval.[162] Later research shows that the authorities aimed to reunite white families without doing so for Indigenous ones.[162] Overall Indigenous communities in south-eastern Australia became increasingly under government control, with a dependence on weekly rations instead of agricultural work.[163] The 1897 Queensland Act and its subsequent amendments gave reserve superintendents the right to search people and their dwellings or belongings, to confiscate their property and read their mail, as well as to expel them to other reserves, among other powers.[148] The inhabitants had to work 32 hours a week without pay, and were subject to verbal abuse, while their traditions were prohibited.[148]

1940s–present: political activism and equality Edit

World War II led to improvements and new opportunities in Indigenous lives through employment in the services and war time industries.[128] After the war, full employment continued, with 96 percent of New South Wales' Indigenous population being employed in 1948.[128] The Commonwealth Child Endowment, as well as the Invalid and Old Age Pensions, were expanded to Indigenous people outside of reserves during the war, though full inclusiveness only followed by 1966.[128] The 1940s also saw individuals given the ability to apply for freedom from Aboriginal Acts, though onerous conditions kept the numbers relatively low.[164] The Nationality and Citizenship Act of 1948 also gave citizenship to any Indigenous people born in Australia.[164] In 1949, the right to vote in federal elections was extended to Indigenous Australians who had served in the armed forces, or were enrolled to vote in state elections.

The postwar era also saw the increased removal of children under assimilationist policies, with between 10 and 33 percent of Aboriginal children being removed from their families between 1910 and 1970.[165] The number may have been more than 70,000 across 70 years.[165] By 1961, the Aboriginal population had risen to 106,000.[166] This went hand-in-hand with urbanization, with the population in capital cities increasing by the 1960s with 12,000 in Sydney, 5000 in Brisbane and 2000 in Melbourne.[166]

In 1962, the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders started advocating for wage equality, successfully pressuring the Australian Council of Trade Unions to join the cause.[140] As a result, in 1965 the Australian Industrial Relations Commission declared that there should be no discrimination in Australian industrial relations law.[140] However, after this pastoralists began to mechanize their operations with fencing and helicopters, as well as stating to employ white Australians.[167] By 1971, Indigenous labour had reduced by 30 percent in some places.[167] Unemployment rose massively during the rest of the decade, with Indigenous people being pushed off pastoral properties and gathering in northern towns such as Katherine, Tennant Creek, Halls Creek, Fitzroy Crossing, Broome and Derby.[168]

Indigenous people generally had very poor economic opportunities, with 81 percent of workers being unskilled, 18 percent semi-skilled, and just 1 percent skilled in New South Wales in the mid-'60s.[169] Health differences to the general population were massive, with many times worse infant mortality rates and child health, especially in the Northern Territory.[170] Issues of malnutrition, poverty and poor sanitation led to health effects on children potentially affecting school success.[171] The lack of skills in New South Wales was accompanied with only 4 percent having finished secondary or apprentice training.[172] Heavy drinking was also widespread.[173]

Notable Indigenous individuals during the post-war era included activist Douglas Nicholls, artist Albert Namatjira, opera singer Harold Blair, and actor Robert Tudawali.[174] Many Indigenous people were also successful in sports, with 30 national and 5 commonwealth boxing champions by 1980.[175] Lionel Rose had become the world bantamweight champion in 1968.[175] In tennis, Evonne Goolagong Cawley won 11 Grand Slams in the 1970s.[175] Notable players in rugby and Australian rules football included Polly Farmer, Arthur Beetson, Mark Ella, Glen Ella, Gary Ella.[176]

In 1984, a group of Pintupi people who were living a traditional hunter-gatherer desert-dwelling life were tracked down in the Gibson Desert in Western Australia and brought into a settlement. They are believed to have been the last uncontacted tribe in Australia.[177]

Activism Edit

In the 1950s, new political activism for Indigenous rights emerged with 'advancement leagues', which were biracial coalitions.[178] These included the Aboriginal-Australian Fellowship in Sydney and the Victorian Aborigines Advancement League.[178] Similar leagues existed in Perth and Brisbane.[179] A national federation for them was established in 1958 in the form of the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.[179] Conflict over white and Indigenous power within the organisations led to their decline by the 1970s.[180]

Following the Sharpeville massacre, racial issues became a bigger part of student politics, with an educational assistance program called ABSCHOL established by the National Union of Students.[178] In 1965, Charles Perkins organised the Freedom Ride with University of Sydney students, inspired by the American Freedom Riders.[181] The reaction by locals was often violent.[181]

Equality before the law Edit

In 1961, at the Native Welfare Conference, a meeting of federal and state ministers responsible for Aboriginal welfare,[182] agreed on a policy of assimilation. The measures included the removal of discriminatory legislation and restrictive practices, welfare measures, education and training to assist the involvement of Aboriginal people in the economy, and the education of non-Indigenous Australians about Aboriginal culture and history.[183]

All Indigenous Australians were given the right to vote in Commonwealth elections in Australia by the Menzies government in 1962.[184] The first federal election in which all Aboriginal Australians could vote was held in November 1963. The right to vote in state elections was granted in Western Australia in 1962 and Queensland was the last state to do so in 1965.

The 1967 referendum, passed with a 90% majority, allowed Indigenous Australians to be included in the Commonwealth parliament's power to make special laws for specific races, and to be included in counts to determine electoral representation. This has been the largest affirmative vote in the history of Australia's referendums.

The Office of Aboriginal Affairs was established by the Holt government in 1967 following the constitutional referendum. In 1972, the OAA was transformed into a separate government department by the Whitlam government, replacing the preceding Department of the Environment, Aborigines and the Arts created by the McMahon government.[185]

Land rights Edit

The modern land rights movement started with the 1963 Yolngu Bark Petition, when Yolngu people from the remote settlement of Yirrkala, in north-east Arnhem Land, petitioned the federal government to have their land and rights given back. The 1966 Wave Hill Walk-Off, or Gurundji Strike, started with a protest about working conditions, but grew into a lands right issue, with the people claiming rights to the land which was then a cattle station owned by a large British company, Vesteys. The strike lasted for eight years.[186]

The Aboriginal Lands Trust Act 1966 (SA) established the South Australian Aboriginal Lands Trust (ALT).[187] This was the first major recognition of Aboriginal land rights by any Australian government.[188] It allowed for parcels of Aboriginal land previously held by the SA Government, to be handed to the Aboriginal Lands Trust of SA under the Act. The Trust was governed by a Board composed solely of Aboriginal people.[183]

In 1971, Justice Richard Blackburn of the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory ruled against the Yolngu in Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd (the "Gove land rights case") under the principle of terra nullius,[189] when they sought native title rights over the Gove Peninsula. However, Justice Blackburn did acknowledge the claimants' ritual and economic use of the land and that they had an established system of law "a subtle and highly elaborate" system of laws (Madayin).[190] In this way, this was the first significant legal case for Aboriginal land rights in Australia.

In the wake of Milirrpum, the Aboriginal Land Rights Commission (also known as the "Woodward Royal Commission") was established in the Northern Territory in 1973. This Royal Commission, chaired by Justice Woodward, made a number of recommendations in favour of recognising Aboriginal Land Rights.[191] Taking up many of these recommendations, the Whitlam government introduced an Aboriginal Land Rights Bill to Parliament; however, this lapsed upon the dismissal of the government in 1975. The succeeding conservative government, led by Malcolm Fraser, reintroduced a Bill, though not of the same content, and it was signed by the Governor-General of Australia on 16 December 1976.[192][193][194][195]

The Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976 established the basis upon which Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory could claim rights to land based on traditional occupation. The statute, the first of the Aboriginal land rights acts, was significant in that it allowed a claim of title if claimants could provide evidence of their traditional association with land. Four Land Councils were established in the Northern Territory under this law.[196][197] Following this, some states introduced their own land rights legislation; however, there were significant limitations on the returned lands, or that available for claim.[186]

Self-determination Edit

The Australian Aboriginal Flag was designed in 1971 by Harold Thomas, an Aboriginal artist who is descended from the Luritja people of Central Australia. In 1972, the Aboriginal Tent Embassy was established on the steps of Old Parliament House in Canberra, the Australian capital, to demand sovereignty for the Aboriginal Australian peoples.[198] Demands of the Tent Embassy have included land rights and mineral rights to Aboriginal lands, legal and political control of the Northern Territory, and compensation for land stolen.[199]

The National Aboriginal Consultative Committee (NACC) was the first elected body representing Indigenous Australians on the national level, having been established by the Whitlam government in 1972.[200] It was composed of 36 representatives elected by Aboriginal people in 36 regions of Australia.[200] In 1983, the elections reached a turnout of approximately 78 percent.[201] Following a review in 1976, the NACC was abolished by the new Fraser government in 1977.[201] To replace it, the National Aboriginal Conference (NAC) was founded.

Following the election of the Hawke government in 1983, two reports were commissioned into a replacement of the NAC. The O'Donoghue report argued that the NAC did not effectively represent its constituents or advocate specific policies.[201] The Coombs report made the case for an organisation with representation of regions and existing indigenous organisations.[201] To respond to these recommendations, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission was founded in 1989.

The Outstation movement emerged in the 1970s and continued through the 1980s which saw the creation of very small, remote settlements of Aboriginal people who relocated themselves from the towns and settlements where they had been settled by the government's policy of assimilation. It was "a move towards reclaiming autonomy and self-sufficiency".[202] Outstations were created by Aboriginal people who sought autonomy and could be seen as a sign of remote Aboriginal Australians' attempt at self-determination.[203][204]

Later debates about their history and contemporary status Edit

In 1992, the Australian High Court handed down its decision in the Mabo Case, declaring the previous legal concept of terra nullius to be invalid and recognising the pre-colonial land interests of First Nations people within Australia's common law. The Prime Minister Paul Keating praised the decision, saying it "establishes a fundamental truth, and lays the basis for justice".[205] Native title doctrine was eventually codified in statute by the Keating government in the Native Title Act 1993. This recognition enabled further litigation for Indigenous land rights in Australia.[206]

In 1998, as the result of the 1997 Bringing Them Home report on the forced removal of Indigenous children from their families, a National Sorry Day was instituted, to acknowledge the wrong that had been done to Indigenous families. Many politicians, from both sides of the house, participated, with the notable exception of the Prime Minister, John Howard, stating that he "did not subscribe to the black armband view of history".[207] In 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd made a formal apology for the Stolen Generations.

In 1999 a referendum was held to change the Australian Constitution to include a preamble that, amongst other topics, recognised the occupation of Australia by Indigenous Australians prior to British Settlement. This referendum was defeated, though the recognition of Indigenous Australians in the preamble was not a major issue in the referendum discussion, and the preamble question attracted minor attention compared to the question of becoming a republic.

In 2004, the Australian Government abolished The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC), which had been Australia's top Indigenous organisation. The Commonwealth cited corruption and, in particular, made allegations concerning the misuse of public funds by ATSIC's chairman, Geoff Clark, as the principal reason. Indigenous specific programmes have been mainstreamed, that is, reintegrated and transferred to departments and agencies serving the general population. The Office of Indigenous Policy Coordination was established within the then Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, and now with the Department of Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs to co-ordinate a "whole of government" effort. Funding was withdrawn from remote homelands (outstations).[204]

In October 2023, the Australian population voted "no" to alter the Australian Constitution that would recognise Indigenous Australians in the document through prescribing a body called the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice that "may make representations to the Parliament and the Executive Government of the Commonwealth on matters relating to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples".[208]

See also Edit

References Edit

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  This article incorporates text by Anders Bergström et al. available under the CC BY 4.0 license.

Further reading Edit

  • Australian Institute of Aboriginal, and Torres Strait Islander Studies. The Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander history, society and culture Ed. David Horton. (2 Vol. Aboriginal Studies Press, 1994).
  • Craven, Rhonda. Teaching Aboriginal Studies: A practical resource for primary and secondary teaching (Allen & Unwin, 2011).
  • Flood, Josephine. The original Australians: Story of the Aboriginal people (Allen & Unwin, 2006).
  • Gammage, Bill. The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines Made Australia (2011).
  • Gerritsen, Rupert. Australia and the Origins of Agriculture (2008).
  • Hannah, Mark; Macfarlane, Ingereth, eds. (December 2007). Transgressions: Critical Australian Indigenous histories. Aboriginal History Monographs 16. ANU Press. doi:10.22459/T.12.2007. ISBN 9781921313431.
  • Isaacs, Jennifer. Australian dreaming: 40,000 years of Aboriginal history (New Holland Publishing Australia Pty Ltd, 2006).
  • Lourandos, H. Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory (1997)
  • Reynolds, Henry. The other side of the frontier: Aboriginal resistance to the European invasion of Australia (UNSW Press, 2006).
  • Stone, Sharman N., ed. Aborigines in white Australia: a documentary history of the attitudes affecting official policy and the Australian Aborigine, 1697–1973 (Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1974).
  • Williams, E. Complex Hunter-Gatherers: A Late Holocene Example from Temperate Australia (1988).

External links Edit

  • Articles, Research, and Historical Documentation of Explorer & Pioneer Encounters with Native Communities of South East Queensland


history, indigenous, australians, aboriginal, history, redirects, here, academic, journal, aboriginal, history, history, indigenous, australians, began, least, years, when, humans, first, populated, australian, continental, landmasses, this, article, covers, h. Aboriginal history redirects here For the academic journal see Aboriginal History The history of Indigenous Australians began at least 65 000 years ago when humans first populated the Australian continental landmasses 1 This article covers the history of Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples two broadly defined groups which each include other sub groups defined by language and culture The origin of the first humans to populate the southern continent and the pieces of land which became islands as ice receded and sea levels rose remains a matter of conjecture and debate Some anthropologists believe they could have arrived as a result of the earliest human migrations out of Africa Although they likely migrated to the territory later named Australia through Southeast Asia Aboriginal Australians are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Melanesian population although Torres Strait Islander people do have a genetic link to some Melanesian populations There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern day New Guinea and the islands but this may be the result of recent trade and intermarriage 2 Estimates of the number of people living in Australia at the time that colonisation began in 1788 who belonged to a range of diverse groups vary from 300 000 to a million 3 and upper estimates place the total population as high as 1 25 million 4 A cumulative population of 1 6 billion people has been estimated to have lived in Australia over 65 000 years prior to British colonisation 5 The regions of heaviest Aboriginal population were the same temperate coastal regions that are currently the most heavily populated the Murray River valley in particular The population shrank from those present when colonisation began in New South Wales in 1788 to 50 000 in 1930 This drastic reduction in numbers has been attributed to outbreaks of smallpox and other diseases 6 7 but other sources have described the extent of frontier clashes and in some cases deliberate killings of Aboriginal peoples 8 Post colonisation the coastal Indigenous populations were soon absorbed exterminated 9 depleted or forced from their lands the traditional aspects of Aboriginal life which remained persisted most strongly in areas such as the Great Sandy Desert where European settlement has been sparse Although the Aboriginal Tasmanians were almost driven to extinction and once thought to be so other Aboriginal Australian peoples maintained successful communities throughout Australia Contents 1 Migration to Australia 1 1 Changes around 4 000 years ago 2 Early history 2 1 Geography 2 2 Ecology 2 3 Food 2 4 Culture 3 1770 1850s impact of British colonisation 3 1 Assimilation 3 2 Conflict 3 3 Diseases 3 4 Economy and environment 4 1850s 1940s northern expansion 4 1 Employment wagelessness and resistance 4 2 Racism and the early civil rights movement 4 3 Reserves and protection boards 5 1940s present political activism and equality 5 1 Activism 5 2 Equality before the law 5 3 Land rights 5 4 Self determination 5 5 Later debates about their history and contemporary status 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksMigration to Australia EditSee also Prehistory of Australia and Aboriginal Australians Origins nbsp The ancient continents of Sundaland and SahulIt is believed that early human migration to Australia was achieved when it formed part of the Sahul continent connected to the island of New Guinea via a land bridge 10 This would have nevertheless required crossing the sea at the so called Wallace Line 11 It is also possible that people came by island hopping via an island chain between Sulawesi and New Guinea reaching North Western Australia via Timor 12 A 2021 study which mapped likely migration routes suggests that the populating of the Sahul took 5 000 6 000 years to reach Tasmania then part of the continent 13 with a rate of one kilometre per year 14 after making landfall in the Kimberley region of Western Australia around 60 000 years ago 13 The total human population could have been as high as 6 4 million with 3 million in the area of modern Australia 14 The modelling suggests that the path of population movement may have followed two main routes down from contemporary New Guinea with the so called southern route going into Kimberley Pilbara and Arnhem Land and then to the Great Sandy Desert before moving towards the centre in Lake Eyre and further on to the southeast of the continent It also leads through another path to the southwestern parts such as Margaret River and the Nullarbor Plain The northern route meanwhile crosses over the current location of the Torres Strait and then divides into one path connecting to Arnhem Land and another leading down the East Coast 15 The routes are similar to current highways and stock routes in Australia 13 Madjedbebe is the oldest known site showing the presence of humans in Australia with evidence suggesting that it was first occupied by humans possibly by 65 000 6 000 years ago and at least by 50 000 years ago 16 17 The rock shelters at Madjedbebe about 50 kilometres 31 mi inland from the present coast 18 and at Nauwalabila I 70 kilometres 43 mi further south show evidence of used pieces of ochre used by artists 60 000 years ago Near Penrith stone tools have been found in Cranebrook Terraces gravel sediments having dates of 45 000 to 50 000 years BP 19 20 In 1999 Charles Dortch dated chert and calcrete flake stone tools found on Rottnest Island Western Australia at 70 000 years BP 21 22 A 2018 study using archaeobotany dated evidence of human habitation at Karnatukul Serpent s Glen in the Carnarvon Range in the Little Sandy Desert in WA at around 50 000 years which was 20 000 earlier than previously believed 23 24 25 There is also evidence of a change in fire regimes in Australia drawn from reef deposits in Queensland between 70 and 100 000 years ago 26 and the integration of human genomic evidence from various parts of the world also supports a date of before 60 000 years for the arrival of Australian Aboriginal people in the continent 27 28 Humans reached Tasmania approximately 40 000 years ago by migrating across a land bridge from the mainland that existed during the last glacial maximum After the seas rose about 12 000 years ago and covered the land bridge the inhabitants there were isolated from the mainland until the arrival of European settlers 29 Short statured Aboriginal tribes inhabited the rainforests of North Queensland of which the best known group is probably the Tjapukai of the Cairns area 30 These rainforest people collectively referred to as Barrineans were once considered to be a relic of an earlier wave of Negrito migration to the Australian continent 31 but this Aboriginal pygmy theory has been discredited 32 Mungo Man found near Lake Mungo in New South Wales is the oldest human yet found in Australia Although the exact age of Mungo Man is in dispute the best consensus is that he is at least 40 000 years old Stone tools also found at Lake Mungo have been estimated based on stratigraphic association to be about 50 000 years old Since Lake Mungo is in south eastern Australia many archaeologists have concluded that humans must have arrived in north west Australia at least several thousand years earlier Changes around 4 000 years ago Edit The dingo reached Australia about 4 000 years ago thought to have been brought here by Asian seafarers and is believed to have led to the extinction of the thylacine in mainland Australia Around the same time there were changes in language with the Pama Nyungan language family spreading over most of the mainland and stone tool technology with the use of smaller tools Human contact has thus been inferred and genetic data of two kinds have been proposed to support a gene flow from India to Australia first signs of South Asian components in Aboriginal Australian genomes reported on the basis of genome wide SNP data and secondly the existence of a Y chromosome male lineage designated haplogroup C with the most recent common ancestor around 5 000 years ago 33 A 2013 study by researchers at the Max Planck Institute led by Irina Pugach the result of large scale genotyping indicated that Aboriginal Australians the indigenous peoples of New Guinea and the Mamanwa an indigenous people of the southern Philippines are closely related having diverged from a common origin approximately 36 000 years ago The same study shows that Aboriginal genomes consist of up to 11 Indian DNA which is uniformly spread through Northern Australia indicating a substantial gene flow between Indian populations and Northern Australia occurred around 4 230 years ago Changes in tool technology and food processing appear in the archaeological record around this time suggesting there may have been migration from India 34 35 However a 2016 study in Current Biology by Anders Bergstrom et al excluded the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia The study authors sequenced 13 Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes using recent advances in gene sequencing technology investigating their divergence times from Y chromosomes in other continents including comparing the haplogroup C chromosomes The authors concluded that although this does not disprove the presence of any Holocene gene flow or non genetic influences from South Asia at that time and the appearance of the dingo does provide strong evidence for external contacts the evidence overall is consistent with a complete lack of gene flow and points to indigenous origins for the technological and linguistic changes Gene flow across the island dotted 150 kilometre 93 mi wide Torres Strait is both geographically plausible and demonstrated by the data although at this point it could not be determined from this study when within the last 10 000 years it may have occurred newer analytical techniques have the potential to address such questions 33 Early history EditGeography Edit nbsp The shoreline of Tasmania and Victoria about 14 000 years ago as sea levels were rising showing some of the human archaeological sitesWhen the north west of Australia which is closest to Asia was first occupied the region consisted of open tropical forests and woodlands After around 10 000 years of stable climatic conditions by which time the Aboriginal people had settled the entire continent temperatures began cooling and winds became stronger leading to the beginning of an ice age By the glacial maximum 25 000 to 15 000 years ago the sea level had dropped to around 140 metres below its present level Australia was connected to New Guinea and the Kimberley region of Western Australia was separated from Southeast Asia Wallacea by a strait only approximately 90 km wide 36 Rainfall was 40 to 50 lower than modern levels depending on region while the lower CO2 levels half pre industrial levels meant that vegetation required twice as much water for photosynthesis 37 The Kimberley including the adjacent exposed continental Sahul Shelf was covered by vast grasslands dominated by flowering plants of the family Poaceae with woodlands and semi arid scrub covering the shelf joining New Guinea to Australia 38 Southeast of the Kimberley from the Gulf of Carpentaria to northern Tasmania the land including the western and southern margins of the now exposed continental shelves was covered largely by extreme deserts and sand dunes It is believed that during this period no more than 15 of Australia supported trees of any kind While some tree cover remained in the southeast of Australia the vegetation of the wetter coastal areas in this region was semi arid savanna while some tropical rainforests survived in isolated coastal areas of Queensland Tasmania was covered primarily by cold steppe and alpine grasslands with snow pines at lower altitudes There is evidence that there may have been a significant reduction in Australian Aboriginal populations during this time and there would seem to have been scattered refugia in which the modern vegetation types and Aboriginal populations were able to survive Corridors between these refugia seem to be routes by which people kept in contact 39 40 41 With the end of the ice age strong rains returned until around 5 500 years ago when the wet season cycle in the north ended bringing with it a megadrought that lasted 1 500 years The return of reliable rains around 4 000 years BP gave Australia its current climate 38 Following the Ice Age Aboriginal people around the coast from Arnhem Land the Kimberley and the southwest of Western Australia all tell stories of former territories that were drowned beneath the sea with the rising coastlines It was this event that isolated the Tasmanian Aboriginal people on their island and probably led to the extinction of Aboriginal cultures on the Bass Strait Islands and Kangaroo Island in South Australia 42 In the interior the end of the Ice Age may have led to the recolonisation of the desert and semi desert areas by Aboriginal people of the Northern Territory This in part may have been responsible for the spread of languages of the Pama Nyungan language family and secondarily responsible for the spread of male initiation rites involving circumcision There has been a long history of contact between Papuan peoples of the Western Province Torres Strait Islanders and the Aboriginal people in Cape York 42 The Aboriginal Australians lived through great climatic changes and adapted successfully to their changing physical environment There is much ongoing debate about the degree to which they modified the environment One controversy revolves around the role of indigenous people in the extinction of the marsupial megafauna also see Australian megafauna Some argue that natural climate change killed the megafauna Others claim that because the megafauna were large and slow they were easy prey for human hunters A third possibility is that human modification of the environment particularly through the use of fire indirectly led to their extinction citation needed Oral history demonstrates the continuity of culture of Indigenous Australians for at least 10 000 years This is shown by correlation of oral history stories with verifiable incidents including known changes in sea levels and their associated large changes in location of ocean shorelines oral records of megafauna and comets 43 44 Ecology Edit nbsp These implements were used only by men At left a spear thrower called woomera in the Eora language and two examples of boomerangs Boomerangs could be used for hunting most were non returning or purely for music and ceremony The introduction of the dingo possibly as early as 3500 BCE showed that contact with South East Asian peoples continued as the closest genetic connection to the dingo seems to be the wild dogs of Thailand This contact was not just one way as the presence of kangaroo ticks on these dogs demonstrates Dingoes began and evolved in Asia The earliest known dingo like fossils are from Ban Chiang in north east Thailand dated at 5500 years BP and from north Vietnam 5000 years BP According to skull morphology these fossils occupy a place between Asian wolves prime candidates were the pale footed or Indian wolf Canis lupus pallipes and the Arabian wolf Canis lupus arabs and modern dingoes in Australia and Thailand 45 Most scientists presently believe that it was the arrival of the Australian Aboriginal people on the continent and their introduction of fire stick farming that was responsible for these extinctions 46 Fossil research published in 2017 indicates that Aboriginal people and megafauna coexisted for at least 17 000 years Aboriginal Australians used fire for a variety of purposes to encourage the growth of edible plants and fodder for prey to reduce the risk of catastrophic bushfires to make travel easier to eliminate pests for ceremonial purposes for warfare and just to clean up country There is disagreement however about the extent to which this burning led to large scale changes in vegetation patterns 47 Food Edit nbsp Aboriginal grinding stones a pestle and mortar vital in making flours for bush bread Aboriginal women were experts at making bread from a variety of seasonal grains and nuts Aboriginal Australians were limited to the range of foods occurring naturally in their area but they knew exactly when where and how to find everything edible Anthropologists and nutrition experts who have studied the tribal diet in Arnhem Land found it to be well balanced with most of the nutrients modern dietitians recommend But food was not obtained without effort In some areas both men and women had to spend from half to two thirds of each day hunting or foraging for food Each day the women of the group went into successive parts of one countryside with wooden digging sticks and plaited dilly bags or wooden coolamons Larger animals and birds such as kangaroos and emus were speared or disabled with a thrown club boomerang or stone Many Indigenous hunting devices were used to get within striking distance of prey The men were excellent trackers and stalkers approaching their prey running where there was cover or freezing and crawling when in the open They were careful to stay downwind and sometimes covered themselves with mud to disguise their smell Fish were sometimes taken by hand by stirring up the muddy bottom of a pool until they rose to the surface or by placing the crushed leaves of poisonous plants in the water to stupefy them Fish spears nets wicker or stone traps were also used in different areas Lines with hooks made from bone shell wood or spines were used along the north and east coasts Dugong turtle and large fish were harpooned the harpooner launching himself bodily from the canoe to give added weight to the thrust Both Torres Strait Island populations and mainland Aboriginal peoples were predominantly hunter amp gatherers who relied on wild foods 48 However banana cultivation is now thought to have been practiced amongst Torres Strait Islanders 49 Aboriginal Australians along the coast and rivers were also expert fishermen Some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people relied on the dingo as a companion animal using it to assist with hunting and for warmth on cold nights nbsp Aboriginal women s implements including a coolamon lined with paperbark and a digging stick This woven basket style is from Northern Australia Baskets were used for collecting fruits corms seeds and even water some baskets were woven so tightly as to be watertight In present day Victoria there were two separate communities who farmed eels in complex and extensive irrigated pond systems one on the Murray River in the state s north the other in the south west near Hamilton in the territory of the Djab Wurrung which traded with other groups from as far away as the Melbourne area see Gunditjmara citation needed A primary tool used in hunting is the spear launched by a woomera or spear thrower in some locales Boomerangs were also used by some mainland Indigenous Australians The non returnable boomerang known more correctly as a Throwing Stick more powerful than the returning kind could be used to injure or even kill a kangaroo In mainland Australia no animal other than the dingo was domesticated however domestic pigs and cassowaries were utilised by Torres Strait Islanders 50 The typical Aboriginal diet included a wide variety of foods including introduced pigs kangaroo emu wombats goanna snakes birds and many insects such as honey ants Bogong moths and witchetty grubs Many varieties of plant foods such as taro coconuts nuts fruits and berries were also eaten Culture Edit nbsp Lomandra a plant used by Aboriginal Australians for weavingPermanent villages were the norm for most Torres Strait Island communities In some areas mainland Aboriginal Australians also lived in semi permanent villages most usually in less arid areas where fishing 48 could provide for a settled existence with places like Budj Bim in particular growing to comparatively large settlements Most Indigenous communities were semi nomadic moving in a regular cycle over a defined territory following seasonal food sources and returning to the same places at the same time each year From the examination of middens archaeologists have shown that some localities were visited annually by Indigenous communities for thousands of years In the more arid areas Aboriginal Australians were nomadic ranging over wide areas in search of scarce food resources There is evidence of substantial change in indigenous culture over time Rock painting at several locations in northern Australia has been shown to consist of a sequence of different styles linked to different historical periods There is also prominent rock paintings found in the Sydney basin area which date to around 5 000 years Harry Lourandos has been the leading proponent of the theory that a period of agricultural intensification occurred between 3000 and 1000 BCE Intensification involved an increase in human manipulation of the environment for example the construction of eel traps in Victoria population growth an increase in trade between groups a more elaborate social structure and other cultural changes A shift in stone tool technology involving the development of smaller and more intricate points and scrapers occurred around this time This was probably also associated with the introduction to the mainland of the Australian dingo Many Indigenous communities also have a very complex kinship structure and in some places strict rules about marriage In traditional societies men are required to marry women of a specific moiety The system is still alive in many Central Australian communities To enable men and women to find suitable partners many groups would come together for annual gatherings commonly known as corroborees at which goods were traded news exchanged and marriages arranged amid appropriate ceremonies This practice both reinforced clan relationships and prevented inbreeding in a society based on small semi nomadic groups Initiation rites included female genital mutilation 51 ritual gang raping 52 penile subincision 53 and the ritual of penis holding when a man enters a strange camp 54 Common occurrences of infanticide about 30 of newborns were killed as form of population and family size control 55 and cannibalism 56 are widely documented 1770 1850s impact of British colonisation EditSee also European exploration of Australia History of Australia 1788 1850 and Australian frontier wars nbsp A 19th century engraving of an Aboriginal Australian encampment showing the indigenous lifestyle in the cooler parts of Australia at the time of European settlementThe first contact between British explorers and Indigenous Australians came in 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook interacted with the Guugu Yimithirr people around contemporary Cooktown Cook wrote that he had claimed the east coast of Australia for what was then the Kingdom of Great Britain and named it New South Wales while on Possession Island off the west coast of Cape York Peninsula 57 However it seems that no such claim was made when Cook was in Australia 58 Cook s orders were to look for a Continent or Land of great extent and with the Consent of the Natives to take possession of Convenient situations in the Country in the name of the King 59 The British government did not view Aboriginal Australians as the owners of the land as they did not practise farming 60 British colonisation of Australia began at Port Jackson in 1788 with the arrival of Governor Arthur Phillip and the First Fleet 61 The Governor was instructed to by every possible means to open an intercourse with the natives and to conciliate their affections enjoining all our subjects to live in amity and kindness with them and to punish those aiming to wantonly destroy them 62 The immediate reaction of the Eora who were first to witness it to colonisation was at first surprise and then aggression 63 Following this the Eora generally avoided the British for the next two years 64 They were offended by the British entering their lands and taking advantage of their resources without asking permission as was customary in Aboriginal society 62 Some contacts did however occur with both the Eora and the Tharawal at Botany Bay including exchanges of gifts 64 Out of the 17 encounters during the first month only two involved the Eora entering British settlements 64 After a year Phillip decided to capture Indigenous people to teach them English and make them intermediaries resulting in the kidnappings of Arabanoo and Bennelong with Phillip getting speared by the latter s companion 62 Bennelong would eventually travel to England with Phillip and Yemmerrawanne in 1793 65 A Kuringgai man Bungaree also made voyages with Europeans 65 Following the lethal spearing of a huntsman possibly by Pemulwuy Phillip ordered 10 men but not women or children in Botany Bay to be captured and beheaded 66 None were however found 66 nbsp The Natives of Botany Bay by R Cleveley 1789 The first apparent consequence of British settlement appeared in April 1789 when a disease which was probably smallpox struck the Aboriginal peoples about Port Jackson 67 Before the epidemic the First Fleet had equalled the population of the Eora after it the settler population was equal to all Indigenous people on the Cumberland Plain and by 1820 their population of 30 000 was as much of the entire Indigenous populace of New South Wales 68 A generation after colonization the Eora Dharug and Kuringgai had been greatly reduced and were mainly living in the outskirts of European society though some Indigenous people did continue to live in the coastal regions around Sydney further on as well as around Georges River and Botany Bay 69 Further inland Indigenous peoples were warned of the British invasion after the Cumberland Plain had been taken by 1815 and this information preceded them by hundreds of kilometres 70 However by the second generation of contact many groups in south eastern Australia were gone 71 The greatest cause of death was disease followed by settler and inter Indigenous killings 71 This population loss was further exacerbated by an extremely low birth rate 72 An estimated decline of 80 percent in the population meant that traditional kinship systems and ceremonial obligations became hard to maintain and family and social relations were torn 73 The survivors came to live on the fringes of European society living in tents and shacks around towns and riverbanks in poor health 74 Aboriginal Tasmanians first came to contact with Europeans when the Baudin expedition to Australia arrived at Adventure Bay in 1802 75 The French explorers were more friendly to the Indigenous than the British further north 75 Already earlier in 1800 European whalers had been to the Bass Strait islands were they had used kidnapped aboriginal women 75 The local Indigenous also sold women to the sailors 76 Later the descendants of these women would be the last survivors of Tasmanian Indigenous people 71 Assimilation Edit The assimilation policy was first started by Governor Macquarie who established in 1814 the Native Institution in Blacktown to effect the Civilization of the Aborigines of New South Wales and to render their Habits more domesticated and industrious by enrolling children in a residential school 77 By 1817 17 were enrolled one of whom a girl called Maria won the first prize in a school exam ahead of European children in 1819 77 The institution was however closed soon after following Macquarie s replacement for spending 78 Macquerie also had attempted to settle 16 Kuringgai at George s Head with land pre fabricated huts and other supplies but the families had soon sold the farms and left 78 Christian missions were also started at Lake Macquarie in 1827 at Wellington Valley in 1832 and in Port Phillip and Moreton Bay around 1840 78 These involved learning Indigenous languages with the Gospel of Luke translated into Awabakal in 1831 by a missionary and Biraban as well as offering food and sanctuary on the frontier 79 However when supplies ran out the Indigenous would often leave for pastoral stations in search of work 79 Some missionaries would take children without consent to be taught in dormitories 65 nbsp This portrait of a young Indigenous boy was commissioned by a member of a Christian mission station to show the achievements of the mission at civilising the Indigenous population 80 The government had started blanket distribution in the 1830s but ended this in 1844 as a cost saving measure 81 It also created Indigenous paramilitary units called the Australian native police with these being establish in Port Phillip in 1842 New South Wales in 1848 and in Queensland 1859 82 Exceptional among these the Port Phillip force had police powers over white people as well 83 The forces killed hundreds of or in the case of Queensland up to a thousand Indigenous people 84 In 1833 a committee of the British House of Commons led by Fowell Buxton demanded better treatment of the Indigenous referring to them as original owners leading the British government in 1838 to create the office of the Protector of Aborigines 85 However this effort ended by 1857 85 Nevertheless the humanitarian effort did produce the Waste Land Act of 1848 which gave indigenous people certain rights and reserves on the land 86 There was also some assimilation of Europeans into Indigenous cultures Living with Indigenous people was William Buckley an escaped convict who was with the Wautharong people near Melbourne for thirty two years before being found in 1835 James Morrill was an English sailor aboard the vessel Peruvian which became shipwrecked off the coast of north eastern Australia in 1846 was taken in by a local clan of Aboriginal Australians He adopted their language and customs and lived as a member of their society for 17 years Indigenous peoples also adopted the European dog widely 87 Conflict Edit nbsp Governor Davey s proclamation of protection for the Indigenous in Van Diemen s Land 1816 nbsp New South Wales Mounted Police killing Aboriginal warriors during the Waterloo Creek massacre 1838On the mainland prolonged conflict followed the frontier of European settlement 88 An estimated minimum of 40 000 Indigenous Australians and between 2 000 and 2 500 settlers died in the wars However recent scholarship on the frontier wars in what is now the state of Queensland indicates that Indigenous fatalities may have been significantly higher Indeed while battles and massacres occurred in a number of locations across Australia they were particularly bloody in Queensland owing to its comparatively larger pre contact Indigenous population It is estimated that up to 3 000 white people were killed by Aboriginal Australians in the frontier violence 89 Some Indigenous people also allied with the colonists against other Indigenous people 90 Colonization accelerated fighting between Indigenous groups by causing them to leave their traditional lands as well as by causing deaths by disease which were attributed to enemy sorcery 91 Indigenous gun ownership was banned in New South Wales in 1840 but this was overturned by the British government as inequality before the law 87 In 1790 an Aboriginal leader Pemulwuy in Sydney resisted the Europeans 92 waging a guerrilla style warfare on the settlers in a series of wars known as the Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars which spanned 26 years from 1790 to 1816 93 After his death in 1802 his son Tedbury continued the campaign until 1810 68 The campaign led to the banning of Aboriginal groups of more than six and forbid them from carrying weapons closer to two kilometers from settlements 68 Beyond the Cumberland Plain violence erupted first at Bathurst against the Wiradjuri with martial law declared in 1822 and the 40th Regiment responding 94 This became known as the Bathurst War In Van Diemen s Land conflict arrived in 1824 after major expansion of settler and sheep numbers with Indigenous warriors responding by killing 24 Europeans by 1826 94 In 1828 martial law was declared and bounty parties of settlers took vengeance 95 On the Indigenous side Musquito led the Oyster Bay tribe against the settlers 82 Tarenorerer was another leader The Black War fought largely as a guerrilla war by both sides claimed the lives of 600 to 900 Aboriginal people and more than 200 European colonists nearly annihilating the island s indigenous population 96 97 The near destruction of the Aboriginal Tasmanians and the frequent incidence of mass killings has sparked debate among historians over whether the Black War should be defined as an act of genocide 98 In Swan River Colony conflict occurred near Perth with the government offering the use of the armoury for the settlers 90 A punitive party was led against the Pindjarup in 1834 90 Diseases Edit Deadly infectious diseases like smallpox influenza and tuberculosis were always major causes of Aboriginal deaths 99 Smallpox alone killed more than 50 of the Aboriginal population 7 Other diseases included dysentery scarlet fever typhus measles whooping cough and influenza 100 Sexually transmitted infections were also introduced by colonialism 100 Health decline was also caused by increasing use of flour and sugar instead of more diverse traditional diets resulting in malnutrition 101 Alcohol was also first introduced by colonialism leading to alcoholism 102 In April 1789 a major outbreak of smallpox killed large numbers of Indigenous Australians between Hawkesbury River Broken Bay and Port Hacking Based on information recorded in the journals of some members of the First Fleet it has been surmised that the Aboriginal peoples of the Sydney region had never encountered the disease before and lacked immunity to it Unable to understand or counter the sickness they often fled leaving the sick with some food and water to fend for themselves As the clans fled the epidemic spread further along the coast and into the hinterland This had a disastrous effect on Aboriginal society with many of the productive hunters and gatherers dead those who survived the initial outbreak began to starve citation needed Some have suggested that Makasar fishermen accidentally brought smallpox to Australia s north and the virus travelled south 103 However given that the spread of the disease depends on high population densities and the fact that those who succumbed were soon incapable of walking such an outbreak was unlikely to have spread across the desert trade routes 104 A more likely source of the disease was the variolas matter Surgeon John White brought with him on the First Fleet although it is unknown how this may have been spread 104 It has also been speculated that the vials were either accidentally or intentionally released as a biological weapon 105 In 2014 writing in Journal of Australian Studies Christopher Warren concluded that British marines were most likely to have spread smallpox possibly without informing Governor Phillip but conceded in his conclusion that today s evidence only provides for a balancing of probabilities and this is all that can be attempted 106 79 68 86 Economy and environment Edit In 1822 the British government reduced duties on Australian wool leading to an expansion of sheep numbers followed by increased immigration 107 The sheep flourished in the arid western plains 108 The settlers created an ecological revolution as their cattle ate away local grasses and trampled waterholes with precious food staples like murnong diminished and with new weeds spreading 109 Meat sources like kangaroo and the Australian brushturkey were replaced by cattle 109 In response Indigenous peoples would appropriate settler resources such as taking sheep and raising their own flocks 109 New economic products also disrupted traditional lifestyles as for example in the case of the steel axe which replaced the traditional stone one resulting in a loss of authority to the older men who traditionally had access to them 76 The new axes would be given to younger people by settlers and missionaries in exchange for work also diminishing old trading networks 76 Following the loss of lands Indigenous people came in to pastoral station missions and towns often forced by lack of food 110 Tobacco tea and sugar were also important in attracting Indigenous people to settlers 111 After some handouts work was demanded by the settlers in return for rations leading to Indigenous employment in cutting timber herding and shearing sheep and in stock work 112 They were also working as fishermen water carriers domestic servants boatmen and whalers 113 However European work ethic was not part of their culture as working beyond the amount necessary for future benefits was seen as not important 114 Their pay was also unequal to that of settlers being mostly rations or less than half the wage 114 Women had previously been the main providers in Indigenous families but their roles were diminished as men became the main recipients of wages and rations while women could at most find European style domestic work or prostitution leading some to live with European men who had access to resources 115 1850s 1940s northern expansion Edit nbsp Aboriginal Bora ceremony early 20th century nbsp Aboriginals in chains at Wyndham prison 1902 116 By 1850 southern Australia had been settled by the new immigrants and their descendants except for the Great Victoria Desert Nullarbor Plain Simpson Desert and Channel Country 117 European explorers had started to venture into these areas as well as the Top End and Cape York Peninsula 117 By 1862 they had crossed the continent and entered Kimberley and Pilbara while consolidating colonial claims in the process 117 Indigenous reaction to them ranged from assistance to hostility 117 Any new lands were claimed mapped and opened to pastoralists with North Queensland settled in the 1860s Central Australia and the Northern Territory in the 1870s Kimberley in the 1880s and the Wunaamin Miliwundi Ranges after 1900 117 118 This again led to violent confrontation with the Indigenous peoples 117 However because of the dryness and remoteness of the new frontier settlement and economic development were slower 119 The European population therefore remained small and consequently more fearful with few police protecting the Indigenous population 119 It is estimated that in North Queensland 15 percent of the first wave of pastoralists were killed in Indigenous attacks while 10 times more of the other side met the same fate 120 In the Gulf Country over 400 violent Indigenous deaths were recorded 1872 to 1903 121 In the earlier settled southern parts of Australia an estimated 20 000 Indigenous individuals 10 percent of the total at the beginning of colonization remained by the 1920s with half being of mixed ancestry 122 There about 7000 in New South Wales 5000 in southern Queensland 2500 in south west Western Australia 1000 in southern South Australia 500 in Victoria and under 200 in Tasmania mostly on Cape Barren Island 122 One fifth lived in reserves while most of the rest were in camps around country towns with small numbers owning farms or living in towns or capital cities 122 In the country as a whole there were about 60 000 Indigenous people in 1930 123 The Defence Act of 1903 only allowed those of European origin or descent to enlist in military service 124 However in 1914 around 800 Aboriginal people answered the call to arms to fight in World War I 125 As the war continued these restrictions were relaxed as more recruits were needed citation needed Many enlisted by claiming they were Maori or Indian 126 During World War II after the threat of Japanese invasion of Australia Indigenous enlistment was accepted 127 Up to 3000 individuals of mixed descent served in the military including Reg Saunders the first indigenous officer 128 The Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion Northern Territory Special Reconnaissance Unit and the Snake Bay Patrol were also established Another 3000 civilians worked in labour corps 128 Employment wagelessness and resistance Edit nbsp Indigenous Australian stockman at Victoria River Downs StationNevertheless Indigenous workers in the north were able to find jobs better than in south since there was no cheap convict labour available though they were not paid in wages and were abused 129 There was a widely held belief that white people could not work in Northern Australia 130 Pearl hunting employed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander workers though many were coerced into it 129 By the 1880s the introduction of diving suits had reduced Indigenous workers to deckhands 131 Otherwise Indigenous people congregated at settlements such as Broome servicing luggers or Darwin where 20 percent of the Northern Territory s Indigenous workers were employed 130 However in Darwin the Indigenous workers were kept locked up at night 132 Most of the Indigenous workers in North Queensland the Northern Territory and the Kimberley were employed by the cattle industry 132 Wage payment varied by state In Queensland wages were paid from 1901 onwards being set at a third of white wages in 1911 two thirds in 1918 and equal in 1930 133 However some of the wages were deposited on trust accounts from which they could be stolen 133 In the Northern Territory there was no requirement to pay a wage 133 Overall up to the Second World War about half of the Indigenous stockmen received wages and if so they were well below the white level 134 There was also physical abuse of the workers sometimes including by the police 135 On 4 February 1939 Jack Patten led a strike at Cummeragunja Station in New South Wales The people of Cummeragunja were protesting their harsh treatment under what was a draconian system A once successful farming enterprise was taken from their control and residents were forced to subsist on meagre rations Approximately 200 people left their homes taking part in the Cummeragunja walk off and the majority crossed the border into Victoria never to return home 136 Following the rising threat from Empire of Japan the Australian Army came to the north in the early 1940s bringing new people and ideas while employing Indigenous workers in defence projects 137 They were paid a wage and mixed with the regular troops 137 This led the Northern Territory administration to investigate and recommend paying wages though it was never enforced 137 Following meetings held by the white communist Don McLeod in 1942 Indigenous groups in Pilbara decided to go on strike which they did after the end of the war in the 1946 Pilbara strike 138 In 1949 they finally won a wage double the size of their original demand and were encouraged to start their own co operative based on the mining they had been doing while on strike 139 Along the war this event also helped reduce the abuse of Indigenous workers 140 Racism and the early civil rights movement Edit As scientific racism developed from Darwinism with Charles Darwin himself having claimed after visiting New South Wales that the death of the Aboriginal was a consequence of natural selection the popular view of Indigenous Australians started to see them as inferior 141 Indigenous Australians were considered in the global scientific community as the world s most primitive humans leading to trade of human remains and relics 142 This was especially true of Indigenous Tasmanians with 120 books and articles written by scholars around the world by the late 19th century 143 Some Indigenous people were also toured and exhibited around the world as spectacles 144 However in the 1930s physical anthropology was taken over by cultural anthropology which focused cultural difference over inferiority 145 Alfred Radcliffe Brown the father of modern social anthropology published his Social Organization of Australian Tribes in 1931 146 By 1900 most white Australians held racist views of the Indigenous peoples and the Constitution of Australia of that year did not count them alongside other Australians in the census 147 Racist treatment was also encoded in special Acts governing Indigenous peoples separately from the rest of society 148 Racism also manifested itself in everyday discrimination which was termed the colour bar or the caste barrier 149 This affected life in most settled parts of Australia though not that much in the capital cities 149 For example from the 1890s to 1949 the New South Wales government removed Indigenous children from state schools if non Indigenous parents objected to their presence placing them instead to reserve schools with worse education 149 The same policy was in place in Western Australia as well where only one percent of Indigenous children attended state schools 149 Indigenous residents of New South Wales were also not permitted to buy or drink alcohol 149 These kinds of restrictions did not apply in Victoria with a smaller Indigenous population and an assimilationist policy 149 Furthermore Indigenous people were often excluded from organisations businesses and sports or recreational facilities such as pools 149 Employment and housing was difficult to find for them 149 Women s groups such as the Australian Federation of Women Voters and the National Council of Women of Australia became advocates for Indigenous issues in the 1920s 150 The first Indigenous political organisation was the Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association established in 1924 with 11 branches and more than 500 Indigenous members in a year 151 It had been partly inspired by Marcus Garvey 151 In 1926 the Native Union in Western Australia was founded 152 White advocate groups emerged in the 1930s 150 Other Indigenous organisations included the Euralian Association set up in 1934 the Australian Aborigines League in 1934 and the Aborigines Progressive Association in 1937 152 The latter marked Invasion Day on the 150th anniversary of the First Fleet s landing 152 Reserves and protection boards Edit nbsp Cummeragunja Aboriginal Mission Station in 1893The only known treaty between Indigenous and European Australians was Batman s Treaty signed by Billibellary His son Simon Wonga and other Kulin nation leaders requested land in 1859 for cultivation and were granted 1820 hectares in the Acheron River by the Victorian government 153 In 1860 the same government established Aboriginal reserves in Coranderrk Framlingham Lake Condah Ebenezer Ramahyuck as well as Lake Tyers 153 Corranderrk was notably successful becoming practically self sufficient and winning the first prize for their hops at the Melbourne International Exhibition 154 Nevertheless the inhabitants were refused to be given individual land titles or be paid wages 155 In South Australia Raukkan and Poonindie were also set up as communities for Indigenous peoples 156 In New South Wales such communities included Maloga Brungle Warangesda and Cummeragunja 157 However the reserve system also gave authorities power over Indigenous people with the Aboriginal Protection Board exercising control over work and wages adult movement and child removal in Victoria from 1869 onwards 158 With the Half Caste Act of 1886 the Victorian government started removing those with partial European ancestry from the reserves with the claimed aim to merge the half caste population into the general community which was also followed in New South Wales with the Aborigines Protection Act 1909 159 This had deleterious consequences for the viability of the communities leading to their decline 159 The Queensland Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act of 1897 became a model for Indigenous legislation in Western Australia 1905 South Australia 1911 and the Northern Territory 1911 which gave the authorities power over anyone deemed Aboriginal in regards to placing them or their children in reserves denying voting rights or the ability to buy alcohol as well as prohibiting interracial sexual relations requiring a ministerial permission for interracial marriage 160 The reserves were subsequently mostly reduced closed and sold off by the 1920s 161 Meanwhile the Protection Boards became more powerful in 1915 in New South Wales after new legislation gave them the power to remove children of mixed ancestry without parental or court approval 162 Later research shows that the authorities aimed to reunite white families without doing so for Indigenous ones 162 Overall Indigenous communities in south eastern Australia became increasingly under government control with a dependence on weekly rations instead of agricultural work 163 The 1897 Queensland Act and its subsequent amendments gave reserve superintendents the right to search people and their dwellings or belongings to confiscate their property and read their mail as well as to expel them to other reserves among other powers 148 The inhabitants had to work 32 hours a week without pay and were subject to verbal abuse while their traditions were prohibited 148 1940s present political activism and equality EditSee also Stolen Generations and Republicanism in Australia World War II led to improvements and new opportunities in Indigenous lives through employment in the services and war time industries 128 After the war full employment continued with 96 percent of New South Wales Indigenous population being employed in 1948 128 The Commonwealth Child Endowment as well as the Invalid and Old Age Pensions were expanded to Indigenous people outside of reserves during the war though full inclusiveness only followed by 1966 128 The 1940s also saw individuals given the ability to apply for freedom from Aboriginal Acts though onerous conditions kept the numbers relatively low 164 The Nationality and Citizenship Act of 1948 also gave citizenship to any Indigenous people born in Australia 164 In 1949 the right to vote in federal elections was extended to Indigenous Australians who had served in the armed forces or were enrolled to vote in state elections The postwar era also saw the increased removal of children under assimilationist policies with between 10 and 33 percent of Aboriginal children being removed from their families between 1910 and 1970 165 The number may have been more than 70 000 across 70 years 165 By 1961 the Aboriginal population had risen to 106 000 166 This went hand in hand with urbanization with the population in capital cities increasing by the 1960s with 12 000 in Sydney 5000 in Brisbane and 2000 in Melbourne 166 In 1962 the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders started advocating for wage equality successfully pressuring the Australian Council of Trade Unions to join the cause 140 As a result in 1965 the Australian Industrial Relations Commission declared that there should be no discrimination in Australian industrial relations law 140 However after this pastoralists began to mechanize their operations with fencing and helicopters as well as stating to employ white Australians 167 By 1971 Indigenous labour had reduced by 30 percent in some places 167 Unemployment rose massively during the rest of the decade with Indigenous people being pushed off pastoral properties and gathering in northern towns such as Katherine Tennant Creek Halls Creek Fitzroy Crossing Broome and Derby 168 Indigenous people generally had very poor economic opportunities with 81 percent of workers being unskilled 18 percent semi skilled and just 1 percent skilled in New South Wales in the mid 60s 169 Health differences to the general population were massive with many times worse infant mortality rates and child health especially in the Northern Territory 170 Issues of malnutrition poverty and poor sanitation led to health effects on children potentially affecting school success 171 The lack of skills in New South Wales was accompanied with only 4 percent having finished secondary or apprentice training 172 Heavy drinking was also widespread 173 Notable Indigenous individuals during the post war era included activist Douglas Nicholls artist Albert Namatjira opera singer Harold Blair and actor Robert Tudawali 174 Many Indigenous people were also successful in sports with 30 national and 5 commonwealth boxing champions by 1980 175 Lionel Rose had become the world bantamweight champion in 1968 175 In tennis Evonne Goolagong Cawley won 11 Grand Slams in the 1970s 175 Notable players in rugby and Australian rules football included Polly Farmer Arthur Beetson Mark Ella Glen Ella Gary Ella 176 In 1984 a group of Pintupi people who were living a traditional hunter gatherer desert dwelling life were tracked down in the Gibson Desert in Western Australia and brought into a settlement They are believed to have been the last uncontacted tribe in Australia 177 Activism Edit In the 1950s new political activism for Indigenous rights emerged with advancement leagues which were biracial coalitions 178 These included the Aboriginal Australian Fellowship in Sydney and the Victorian Aborigines Advancement League 178 Similar leagues existed in Perth and Brisbane 179 A national federation for them was established in 1958 in the form of the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders 179 Conflict over white and Indigenous power within the organisations led to their decline by the 1970s 180 Following the Sharpeville massacre racial issues became a bigger part of student politics with an educational assistance program called ABSCHOL established by the National Union of Students 178 In 1965 Charles Perkins organised the Freedom Ride with University of Sydney students inspired by the American Freedom Riders 181 The reaction by locals was often violent 181 Equality before the law Edit In 1961 at the Native Welfare Conference a meeting of federal and state ministers responsible for Aboriginal welfare 182 agreed on a policy of assimilation The measures included the removal of discriminatory legislation and restrictive practices welfare measures education and training to assist the involvement of Aboriginal people in the economy and the education of non Indigenous Australians about Aboriginal culture and history 183 All Indigenous Australians were given the right to vote in Commonwealth elections in Australia by the Menzies government in 1962 184 The first federal election in which all Aboriginal Australians could vote was held in November 1963 The right to vote in state elections was granted in Western Australia in 1962 and Queensland was the last state to do so in 1965 The 1967 referendum passed with a 90 majority allowed Indigenous Australians to be included in the Commonwealth parliament s power to make special laws for specific races and to be included in counts to determine electoral representation This has been the largest affirmative vote in the history of Australia s referendums The Office of Aboriginal Affairs was established by the Holt government in 1967 following the constitutional referendum In 1972 the OAA was transformed into a separate government department by the Whitlam government replacing the preceding Department of the Environment Aborigines and the Arts created by the McMahon government 185 Land rights Edit See also Indigenous land rights in Australia The modern land rights movement started with the 1963 Yolngu Bark Petition when Yolngu people from the remote settlement of Yirrkala in north east Arnhem Land petitioned the federal government to have their land and rights given back The 1966 Wave Hill Walk Off or Gurundji Strike started with a protest about working conditions but grew into a lands right issue with the people claiming rights to the land which was then a cattle station owned by a large British company Vesteys The strike lasted for eight years 186 The Aboriginal Lands Trust Act 1966 SA established the South Australian Aboriginal Lands Trust ALT 187 This was the first major recognition of Aboriginal land rights by any Australian government 188 It allowed for parcels of Aboriginal land previously held by the SA Government to be handed to the Aboriginal Lands Trust of SA under the Act The Trust was governed by a Board composed solely of Aboriginal people 183 In 1971 Justice Richard Blackburn of the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory ruled against the Yolngu in Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd the Gove land rights case under the principle of terra nullius 189 when they sought native title rights over the Gove Peninsula However Justice Blackburn did acknowledge the claimants ritual and economic use of the land and that they had an established system of law a subtle and highly elaborate system of laws Madayin 190 In this way this was the first significant legal case for Aboriginal land rights in Australia In the wake of Milirrpum the Aboriginal Land Rights Commission also known as the Woodward Royal Commission was established in the Northern Territory in 1973 This Royal Commission chaired by Justice Woodward made a number of recommendations in favour of recognising Aboriginal Land Rights 191 Taking up many of these recommendations the Whitlam government introduced an Aboriginal Land Rights Bill to Parliament however this lapsed upon the dismissal of the government in 1975 The succeeding conservative government led by Malcolm Fraser reintroduced a Bill though not of the same content and it was signed by the Governor General of Australia on 16 December 1976 192 193 194 195 The Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976 established the basis upon which Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory could claim rights to land based on traditional occupation The statute the first of the Aboriginal land rights acts was significant in that it allowed a claim of title if claimants could provide evidence of their traditional association with land Four Land Councils were established in the Northern Territory under this law 196 197 Following this some states introduced their own land rights legislation however there were significant limitations on the returned lands or that available for claim 186 Self determination Edit Main article Indigenous Australian self determination The Australian Aboriginal Flag was designed in 1971 by Harold Thomas an Aboriginal artist who is descended from the Luritja people of Central Australia In 1972 the Aboriginal Tent Embassy was established on the steps of Old Parliament House in Canberra the Australian capital to demand sovereignty for the Aboriginal Australian peoples 198 Demands of the Tent Embassy have included land rights and mineral rights to Aboriginal lands legal and political control of the Northern Territory and compensation for land stolen 199 The National Aboriginal Consultative Committee NACC was the first elected body representing Indigenous Australians on the national level having been established by the Whitlam government in 1972 200 It was composed of 36 representatives elected by Aboriginal people in 36 regions of Australia 200 In 1983 the elections reached a turnout of approximately 78 percent 201 Following a review in 1976 the NACC was abolished by the new Fraser government in 1977 201 To replace it the National Aboriginal Conference NAC was founded Following the election of the Hawke government in 1983 two reports were commissioned into a replacement of the NAC The O Donoghue report argued that the NAC did not effectively represent its constituents or advocate specific policies 201 The Coombs report made the case for an organisation with representation of regions and existing indigenous organisations 201 To respond to these recommendations the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission was founded in 1989 The Outstation movement emerged in the 1970s and continued through the 1980s which saw the creation of very small remote settlements of Aboriginal people who relocated themselves from the towns and settlements where they had been settled by the government s policy of assimilation It was a move towards reclaiming autonomy and self sufficiency 202 Outstations were created by Aboriginal people who sought autonomy and could be seen as a sign of remote Aboriginal Australians attempt at self determination 203 204 Later debates about their history and contemporary status Edit In 1992 the Australian High Court handed down its decision in the Mabo Case declaring the previous legal concept of terra nullius to be invalid and recognising the pre colonial land interests of First Nations people within Australia s common law The Prime Minister Paul Keating praised the decision saying it establishes a fundamental truth and lays the basis for justice 205 Native title doctrine was eventually codified in statute by the Keating government in the Native Title Act 1993 This recognition enabled further litigation for Indigenous land rights in Australia 206 In 1998 as the result of the 1997 Bringing Them Home report on the forced removal of Indigenous children from their families a National Sorry Day was instituted to acknowledge the wrong that had been done to Indigenous families Many politicians from both sides of the house participated with the notable exception of the Prime Minister John Howard stating that he did not subscribe to the black armband view of history 207 In 2008 Prime Minister Kevin Rudd made a formal apology for the Stolen Generations In 1999 a referendum was held to change the Australian Constitution to include a preamble that amongst other topics recognised the occupation of Australia by Indigenous Australians prior to British Settlement This referendum was defeated though the recognition of Indigenous Australians in the preamble was not a major issue in the referendum discussion and the preamble question attracted minor attention compared to the question of becoming a republic In 2004 the Australian Government abolished The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission ATSIC which had been Australia s top Indigenous organisation The Commonwealth cited corruption and in particular made allegations concerning the misuse of public funds by ATSIC s chairman Geoff Clark as the principal reason Indigenous specific programmes have been mainstreamed that is reintegrated and transferred to departments and agencies serving the general population The Office of Indigenous Policy Coordination was established within the then Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs and now with the Department of Families Community Services and Indigenous Affairs to co ordinate a whole of government effort Funding was withdrawn from remote homelands outstations 204 In October 2023 the Australian population voted no to alter the Australian Constitution that would recognise Indigenous Australians in the document through prescribing a body called the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice that may make representations to the Parliament and the Executive Government of the Commonwealth on matters relating to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples 208 See also EditAboriginal Australian identity Aboriginal History journal Aboriginal history of Western Australia Aboriginal reserve Aboriginal land rights in Australia Aboriginal South Australians Aboriginal Tasmanians Aboriginal Victorians Australian archaeology Australian genocide debate Bringing them home report 1997 Dark Emu Black Seeds Agriculture or Accident 2014 book Farmers or Hunter Gatherers The Dark Emu Debate 2021 book Genocide of indigenous peoples Colonization of Australia History of Indigenous Australian self determination History wars List of Aboriginal missions in New South Wales List of Indigenous Australian firsts List of massacres of Indigenous Australians Native title in Australia Stolen Generations Tasmania Removal of AboriginesReferences Edit Clarkson Chris Jacobs Zenobia Marwick Ben et al 2017 Human occupation of northern Australia by 65 000 years ago PDF Nature 547 7663 306 310 Bibcode 2017Natur 547 306C doi 10 1038 nature22968 hdl 2440 107043 ISSN 0028 0836 PMID 28726833 S2CID 205257212 Diamond Jared 1997 Guns Germs and Steel London Random House pp 314 316 Colonisation Initial invasion and colonisation 1788 to 1890 Working with Indigenous Australians Retrieved 27 August 2020 Evans R 2007 A History of Queensland Cambridge UK Cambridge U Press pp 10 12 ISBN 978 0 521 54539 6 Gordon Briscoe Len Smith eds 2002 2 How many people had lived in Australia before it was annexed by the English in 1788 The Aboriginal Population Revisited 70 000 years to the present Canberra Aboriginal Studies Press D Hopkins Princes and Peasants Chicago 1983 p 207 Judy Campbell Invisible Invaders Smallpox and Other Diseases in Aboriginal Australia 1780 1880 Melbourne 2002 pp 10 39 50 a b Smallpox Through History Archived from the original on 29 October 2009 Pascoe Bruce 2007 Convincing Ground Learning to Fall in Love with Your Country Aboriginal Studies Press ISBN 978 0 85575 549 2 Calla Wahlquist 2018 Evidence of 250 massacres of Indigenous Australians mapped TheGuardian com Retrieved 6 April 2021 Crabtree Stefani Williams Alan N Bradshaw Corey J A White Devin Saltre Frederik Ulm Sean 30 April 2021 We mapped the super highways the First Australians used to cross the ancient land The Conversation Retrieved 30 April 2021 Russell Lynette Bird Michael Roberts Richard Bert Fifty years ago at Lake Mungo the true scale of Aboriginal Australians epic story was revealed The Conversation Retrieved 4 May 2021 Lourandos Harry Continent of Hunter Gatherers New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory Cambridge University Press 1997 p 81 a b c Morse Dana 30 April 2021 Researchers demystify the secrets of ancient Aboriginal migration across Australia ABC News Australian Broadcasting Corporation Retrieved 7 May 2021 a b Williams Alan N Bradshaw Corey J A Saltre Frederik Norman Kasih Ulm Sean The First Australians grew to a population of millions much more than previous estimates The Conversation Retrieved 4 May 2021 Crabtree Stefani A White Devin A Bradshaw Corey J A Saltre Frederik Williams Alan N Beaman Robin J Bird Michael I Ulm Sean 29 April 2021 Landscape rules predict optimal superhighways for the first peopling of Sahul Nature Human Behaviour 5 10 1303 1313 doi 10 1038 s41562 021 01106 8 ISSN 2397 3374 PMID 33927367 S2CID 233458467 Clarkson Chris Smith Mike Marwick Ben Fullagar Richard Wallis Lynley A Faulkner Patrick Manne Tiina Hayes Elspeth Roberts Richard G Jacobs Zenobia Carah Xavier Lowe Kelsey M Matthews Jacqueline Florin S Anna June 2015 The archaeology chronology and stratigraphy of Madjedbebe Malakunanja II A site in northern Australia with early occupation Journal of Human Evolution 83 46 64 doi 10 1016 j jhevol 2015 03 014 PMID 25957653 S2CID 19824757 The stone artefacts and stratigraphic details support previous claims for human occupation 50 60 ka and show that human occupation during this time differed from later periods Roberts Richard G Jones Rhys Smith M A May 1990 Thermoluminescence dating of a 50 000 year old human occupation site in northern Australia Nature 345 6271 153 156 Bibcode 1990Natur 345 153R doi 10 1038 345153a0 ISSN 0028 0836 S2CID 4282148 Monroe M H 28 April 2016 Malakunanja II Arnhem land Australia The Land Where Time Began Retrieved 12 June 2016 Attenbrow Val 2010 Sydney s Aboriginal Past Investigating the Archaeological and Historical Records Sydney UNSW Press pp 152 153 ISBN 978 1 74223 116 7 Retrieved 11 November 2013 Stockton Eugene D Nanson Gerald C April 2004 Cranebrook Terrace Revisited Archaeology in Oceania 39 1 59 60 doi 10 1002 j 1834 4453 2004 tb00560 x JSTOR 40387277 Australia colonized earlier than previously thought Stone Pages Archaeo News 24 July 2003 The West Australian 19 July 2003 Hesp Patrick A Murray Wallace Colin V and C E Dortch 1999 Aboriginal occupation on Rottnest Island Western Australia provisionally dated by Aspartic Acid Racemisation assay of land snails to greater than 50 ka Australian Archaeology No 49 1999 McDonald Josephine Reynen Wendy Petchey Fiona Ditchfield Kane Byrne Chae Vannieuwenhuyse Dorcas Leopold Matthias Veth Peter September 2018 Karnatukul Serpent s Glen A new chronology for the oldest site in Australia s Western Desert PLOS ONE 13 9 e0202511 Bibcode 2018PLoSO 1302511M doi 10 1371 journal pone 0202511 PMC 6145509 PMID 30231025 via ResearchGate The re excavation of Karnatukul Serpent s Glen has provided evidence for the human occupation of the Australian Western Desert to before 47 830 cal BP modelled median age This new sequence is 20 000 years older than the previous known age for occupation at this site McDonald Jo Veth Peter 2008 Rock art Pigment dates provide new perspectives on the role of art in the Australian arid zone Australian Aboriginal Studies 2008 1 4 21 via ResearchGate McDonald Jo 2 July 2020 Serpents Glen Karnatukul New Histories for Deep time Attachment to Country in Australia s Western Desert Bulletin of the History of Archaeology 30 1 doi 10 5334 bha 624 ISSN 2047 6930 S2CID 225577563 Flannery Tim The Future Eaters Oppenheimer Stephen 2004 Out of Eden The Peopling of the World Constable and Robinson New Ed Oppenheimer Stephen The Real Eve Modern Man s Journey Out of Africa Carroll amp Graf Publishers ISBN 0 7867 1334 8 Mulvaney J and Kamminga J 1999 Prehistory of Australia Smithsonian Institution Press Washington Tindale s Catalogue of Australian Aboriginal Tribes Tjapukai QLD Archived 26 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine Keith Windschuttle and Tim Gillin June 2002 The extinction of the Australian pygmies Quadrant Sydney Line Archived from the original on 8 December 2002 Retrieved 12 June 2016 Colin Groves Australia for the Australians Archived from the original on 15 January 2009 Retrieved 22 October 2008 a b Bergstrom Anders Nagle Nano Chen Yuan McCarthy Shane Pollard Martin O Ayub Qasim Wilcox Stephen Wilcox Leah Oorschot Roland A H van McAllister Peter Williams Lesley Xue Yali Mitchell R John Tyler Smith Chris 21 March 2016 Deep Roots for Aboriginal Australian Y Chromosomes Current Biology 26 6 809 813 doi 10 1016 j cub 2016 01 028 PMC 4819516 PMID 26923783 This is an open access article under the CC BY license http creativecommons org licenses by 4 0 Pugach Irina Frederick Delfin Ellen Gunnarsdottir Manfred Kayser Mark Stoneking 14 January 2013 Genome wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia PNAS 110 5 1803 1808 Bibcode 2013PNAS 110 1803P doi 10 1073 pnas 1211927110 PMC 3562786 PMID 23319617 Aboriginal genes suggest Indian migration Archived 20 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine Australian Geographic 15 January 2013 Coukell Allan May 2001 Could mysterious figures lurking in Australian rock art be the world s oldest shamans New Scientist p 34 J G Luly et al Last Glacial Maximum habitat change and its effects on the grey headed flying fox James Cook University Townsville Queensland a b McGowan Hamish Marx Samuel Moss Patrick Hammond Andrew 28 November 2012 Evidence of ENSO mega drought triggered collapse of prehistory Aboriginal society in northwest Australia ENSO MEGA DROUGHT Geophysical Research Letters 39 22 doi 10 1029 2012GL053916 Dodson J R September 2001 Holocene vegetation change in the mediterranean type climate regions of Australia The Holocene 11 6 673 680 Bibcode 2001Holoc 11 673D doi 10 1191 09596830195690 S2CID 128689357 Jonathan Adams Australasia during The Last 150 000 Years Archived 26 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine Environmental Sciences Division Oak Ridge National Laboratory M H Monroe Last Glacial Maximum in Australia Australia The Land Where Time Began A biography of the Australian continent a b Flood Josephine 1994 Archaeology of the Dreamtime Angus amp Robertson 2Rev Ed ISBN 0 207 18448 8 McOwan Johannah 26 November 2014 Indigenous stories accurately tell of sea level rises land mass reductions over 10 000 years research suggests ABC Online Australian Broadcasting Corporation Retrieved 26 November 2014 Reid Nick Nunn Patrick D 12 January 2015 Ancient Aboriginal stories preserve history of a rise in sea level The Conversation Retrieved 26 January 2020 Corbett Laurie 1995 The Dingo in Australia and Asia Flannery Tim The Future Eaters An Ecological History of the Australian Lands and People Grove Press ISBN 0 8021 3943 4 Westaway Michael Olley Jon Grun Rainer 12 January 2017 Aboriginal Australians co existed with the megafauna for at least 17 000 years The Conversation Retrieved 12 January 2017 a b Gammage Bill October 2011 The Biggest Estate on Earth How Aborigines made Australia Allen amp Unwin pp 281 304 ISBN 978 1 74237 748 3 Indigenous Australians farmed bananas 2 000 years ago BBC News 12 August 2020 Davies S J J F 2002 Ratites and Tinamous Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 854996 2 Joseph Cathy 1996 Compassionate Accountability An Embodied Consideration of Female Genital Mutilation The Journal of Psychohistory 24 12 deMause Lloyd 2002 The Emotional Life of Nations New York amp London Karnac pp 699 700 ISBN 1 892746 98 0 Denniston George C Hodges Frederick Mansfield Milos Marilyn Fayre eds 1999 Male and female circumcision medical legal and ethical considerations in pediatric practice proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Sexual Mutilations Medical Legal and Ethical Considerations in Pediatric Practice held August 5 7 1998 in Oxford England New York Kluwer Academic Plenum Publishers p 212 ISBN 978 0 306 46131 6 Pounder D J 1983 RituaL mutilation Subincision of the penis among Australian Aborigines The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 4 3 227 229 ISSN 0195 7910 PMID 6637950 Rubinstein William D 2004 Genocide a history 1 ed publ in Great Britain ed Harlow England Pearson Longman p 16 ISBN 978 0 582 50601 5 Connor Michael 2005 The invention of Terra Nullius historical and legal fictions on the foundation of Australia Paddington N S W Macleay Press pp 91 94 ISBN 978 1 876492 16 8 Beaglehole J C 1955 The Journals of Captain James Cook Vol 1 Cambridge Hakluyt Society p 387 ISBN 978 0851157443 Cameron Ash M 2018 Lying for the Admiralty Rosenberg pp 180 184 ISBN 9780648043966 Broome Richard 5 November 2019 Aboriginal Australians A history since 1788 Allen amp Unwin p 18 ISBN 978 1 76087 262 5 Broome 5 November 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 19 ISBN 9781760872625 Frost Alan 2012 The First Fleet the real story Collingwood Black Inc ISBN 9781863955614 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 21 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 15 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 16 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 32 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 23 ISBN 9781760872625 Frost Alan 1994 Botany Bay Mirages Melbourne University Press pp 190 210 ISBN 9780522844979 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 26 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 34 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 36 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 5 November 2019 Aboriginal Australians n p 74 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 77 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin pp 78 79 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin pp 79 80 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 17 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 67 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 29 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 30 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 31 ISBN 9781760872625 Radford Ron 2010 Portrait of Nannultera a young Poonindie cricketer Collection highlights National Gallery of Australia National Gallery of Australia Retrieved 11 June 2015 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 35 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 47 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 48 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 49 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin pp 51 52 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 53 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 66 ISBN 9781760872625 The War for the land A Short History of Aboriginal European relations in Cairns Archived from the original on 5 February 2008 Retrieved 7 January 2008 The Statistics of Frontier Conflict Archived from the original on 9 October 2017 Retrieved 26 August 2007 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 44 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 75 ISBN 9781760872625 Kohen J L 2005 Pemulwuy 1750 1802 Pemulwuy c 1750 1802 Retrieved 12 July 2009 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a work ignored help Connor John 2002 The Australian frontier wars 1788 1838 Sydney UNSW Press ISBN 978 0 86840 756 2 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 42 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 43 ISBN 9781760872625 Clements Nicholas 2014 The Black War Brisbane University of Queensland Press p 1 ISBN 978 0 70225 006 4 Ryan Lyndall 2012 Tasmanian Aborigines Sydney Allen amp Unwin p 143 ISBN 978 1 74237 068 2 Clements Nicholas 2014 The Black War Brisbane University of Queensland Press p 4 ISBN 978 0 70225 006 4 Invisible Invaders Archived from the original on 4 September 2007 Retrieved 7 January 2008 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 64 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 62 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin pp 62 63 ISBN 9781760872625 Judy Campbell Invisible Invaders Melbourne University Press 1998 ISBN 9780522849394 a b Smallpox epidemic National Museum Australia Defining moments Retrieved 1 March 2019 Includes further citations Mear Craig June 2008 The origin of the smallpox outbreak in Sydney in 1789 Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society Archived from the original on 31 August 2011 Retrieved 11 May 2013 Warren Christopher March 2014 Smallpox at Sydney Cover who when and why PDF Journal of Australian Studies 38 1 doi 10 1080 14443058 2013 849750 S2CID 143644513 Retrieved 3 February 2017 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 37 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 38 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 39 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 57 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 58 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 59 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 60 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 61 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 79 ISBN 9781760872625 Australian Aborigines in chains at Wyndham prison 1902 Rare Historical Photos 28 December 2015 a b c d e f Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 108 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 114 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 109 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin pp 110 111 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 112 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 172 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 195 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 175 ISBN 9781760872625 Van Dyk Robyn 24 April 2008 Aboriginal ANZACS Australian War Memorial Lest We Forget Message Stick Season 9 Episode 10 23 April 2007 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 207 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c d e Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 208 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 115 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 123 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome d 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 116 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 124 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 130 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 131 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 133 ISBN 9781760872625 Remembering Jack Patten 1905 1957 Koori History 29 February 2016 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 141 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin pp 141 142 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians p 143 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians p 144 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians p 101 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians p 103 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians p 104 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin pp 104 106 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 200 ISBN 9781760872625 Cowlishaw Gillian 1988 Australian Aboriginal studies The anthropologists accounts In M de Lepervanche G Bottomley eds The Cultural Construction of Race Sydney Association for Studies in Society and Culture pp 60 79 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 107 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 120 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c d e f g h Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 178 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 201 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 203 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 205 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 82 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 83 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin pp 85 86 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin pp 86 87 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians pp 87 89 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 91 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 94 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 118 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 95 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 96 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 98 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 209 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 215 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 216 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 145 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 147 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 180 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 183 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 184 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 185 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 187 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin pp 209 210 ISBN 9781760872625 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 192 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 193 ISBN 9781760872625 Colliding worlds first contact in the western desert 1932 1984 a b c Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 217 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 218 ISBN 9781760872625 Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 219 ISBN 9781760872625 a b Broome 2019 Aboriginal Australians Allen amp Unwin p 220 ISBN 9781760872625 Dow Coral Gardiner Garden John 10 May 2011 Overview of Indigenous Affairs Part 1 1901 to 1991 Parliament of Australia Home Parliament of Australia Retrieved 23 July 2020 a b Korff Jens Aboriginal timeline Land amp land rights Creative Spirits Retrieved 23 July 2020 Australian Electoral Commission Electoral Milestone Timetable for Indigenous Australians Pandora s Box the Council for Aboriginal Affairs 1967 1976 Crikey 1 June 2016 Retrieved 15 October 2017 a b Land rights Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies 3 June 2015 Retrieved 21 July 2020 Aboriginal Lands Trust Act 1966 South Australian Acts Point in Time Retrieved on 29 January 2012 Aboriginal Lands Trust Act 1966 SA Documenting A Democracy Museum of Australian Democracy 8 December 1966 Retrieved 25 July 2020 Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd 1971 17 FLR 141 Hobbs Harry Williams George 1 March 2018 The Noongar Settlement Australia s First Treaty Sydney Law Review 40 1 Retrieved 25 July 2020 via Australasian Legal Information Institute AustLII Aboriginal Land Rights Act Archived 10 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine Central Land Council Retrieved on 29 January 2012 Fogarty John Dwyer Jacinta 2012 The First Aboriginal Land Rights Case In Sykes Helen ed More or less democracy amp new media PDF Future Leaders ISBN 9780980332070 Retrieved 19 August 2020 Aboriginal Land Rights Northern Territory Act 1976 Cth Documenting A Democracy Museum of Australian Democracy Retrieved 19 August 2020 PDF of original version The History of the Central Land Council Central Land Council Australia Retrieved 19 August 2020 Lawford Elliana Zillman Stephanie 18 August 2016 Timeline From Wave Hill protest to land handbacks ABC News Retrieved 19 August 2020 Fogarty John Dwyer Jacinta 2012 The First Aboriginal Land Rights Case In Sykes Helen ed More or less democracy amp new media PDF Future Leaders ISBN 9780980332070 Retrieved 19 August 2020 Aboriginal Land Rights Northern Territory Act 1976 Cth Documenting A Democracy Museum of Australian Democracy Retrieved 19 August 2020 PDF of original version Martin Lisa 24 January 2012 Aboriginal tent embassy clocks up 40 years The Sydney Morning Herald Fairfax Media Retrieved 26 January 2012 Aboriginal Tent Embassy National Museum of Australia 13 April 2018 Retrieved 19 July 2020 a b Spirits Jens Korff Creative 8 July 2019 Aboriginal representative bodies Creative Spirits Retrieved 30 December 2019 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c d Building a sustainable National Indigenous Representative Body Issues for consideration Issues Paper 2008 Australian Human Rights Commission www humanrights gov au Retrieved 30 December 2019 Lim Lisa 2 February 2018 Where did the word outstation come from South China Morning Post Retrieved 2 August 2020 Myers Fred Peterson Nicolas January 2016 1 The origins and history of outstations as Aboriginal life projects In Peterson Nicolas Myers Fred eds Experiments in self determination Histories of the outstation movement in Australia Monographs in Anthropology ANU Press p 2 ISBN 9781925022902 Retrieved 2 August 2020 a b Peterson Nicolas Myers Fred eds January 2016 Experiments in self determination Histories of the outstation movement in Australia blurb Monographs in Anthropology ANU Press doi 10 22459 ESD 01 2016 ISBN 9781925022902 Retrieved 2 August 2020 Keating Paul 10 December 1992 Redfern Speech PDF Note an example of litigation following Mabo is the Wik decision McKenna Dr Mark 10 November 1997 Different Perspectives on Black Armband History Parliament of Australia Parliamentary Library Retrieved 2 November 2006 Ritchie Hannah 15 October 2023 The Voice Australians vote No in historic referendum BBC News Retrieved 19 October 2023 nbsp This article incorporates text by Anders Bergstrom et al available under the CC BY 4 0 license Further reading EditAustralian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies The Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander history society and culture Ed David Horton 2 Vol Aboriginal Studies Press 1994 Craven Rhonda Teaching Aboriginal Studies A practical resource for primary and secondary teaching Allen amp Unwin 2011 Flood Josephine The original Australians Story of the Aboriginal people Allen amp Unwin 2006 Gammage Bill The Biggest Estate on Earth How Aborigines Made Australia 2011 Gerritsen Rupert Australia and the Origins of Agriculture 2008 Hannah Mark Macfarlane Ingereth eds December 2007 Transgressions Critical Australian Indigenous histories Aboriginal History Monographs 16 ANU Press doi 10 22459 T 12 2007 ISBN 9781921313431 Isaacs Jennifer Australian dreaming 40 000 years of Aboriginal history New Holland Publishing Australia Pty Ltd 2006 Lourandos H Continent of Hunter Gatherers New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory 1997 Reynolds Henry The other side of the frontier Aboriginal resistance to the European invasion of Australia UNSW Press 2006 Stone Sharman N ed Aborigines in white Australia a documentary history of the attitudes affecting official policy and the Australian Aborigine 1697 1973 Heinemann Educational Publishers 1974 Williams E Complex Hunter Gatherers A Late Holocene Example from Temperate Australia 1988 External links EditJamison T The Australian Aboriginal People Dating the Colonization of Australia Articles Research and Historical Documentation of Explorer amp Pioneer Encounters with Native Communities of South East Queensland Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title History of Indigenous Australians amp oldid 1180874737, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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