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Generation IV reactor

Generation IV reactors (Gen IV) are nuclear reactor design technologies that are envisioned as successors of generation III reactors. The Generation IV International Forum (GIF) - an international organization that coordinates the development of generation IV reactors - specifically selected six reactor technologies as candidates for generation IV reactors.[1][2] The designs target improved safety, sustainability, efficiency, and cost. The first commercial Gen IV plants are not expected before 2040–2050,[3] although the World Nuclear Association in 2015 suggested that some might enter commercial operation before 2030.[4]

Overview

No precise definition of a Generation IV reactor exists. However, the term is intended to refer to nuclear reactor technologies that were under development as of approximately 2000, and whose designs were (at least at that time) believed to represent "the future shape of nuclear energy."[5] The six designs selected at that time were: the gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR), the lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR), the molten salt reactor (MSR), the sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR), the supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR) and the very high-temperature reactor (VHTR). [1][2]

The majority of reactors in operation around the world are considered second generation and third generation reactor systems, as the majority of the first generation systems have been retired. Since 2021, China is the first country to operate a demonstration generation-IV reactor, the HTR-PM,[6][7] of the pebble-bed type. (Meanwhile, Generation V reactors are purely theoretical and are not yet considered feasible.)

The most developed Gen IV reactor design is the sodium fast reactor. It has received the greatest share of funding that supports demonstration facilities. Moir and Teller consider the molten-salt reactor, a less developed technology, as potentially having the greatest inherent safety of the six models.[8][3]

The very-high-temperature reactor designs operate at much higher temperatures than prior generations. This allows for high temperature electrolysis or for sulfur–iodine cycle for the efficient production of hydrogen and the synthesis of carbon-neutral fuels.[2]

Generation IV International Forum

The Generation IV International Forum (GIF) is an international organization with its stated goal being "the development of concepts for one or more Generation IV systems that can be licensed, constructed, and operated in a manner that will provide a competitively priced and reliable supply of energy ... while satisfactorily addressing nuclear safety, waste, proliferation and public perception concerns."[9] It coordinates the development of GEN IV technologies.[2] It has been instrumental in coordinating research into the six types of Generation IV reactors, and in defining the scope and meaning of the term itself.

As of 2021, active members include: Australia, Canada, China, the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), France, Japan, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. Non-active members include Argentina and Brazil.[10]

The Forum was initiated in January 2000 by the Office of Nuclear Energy of the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE)[11] "as a co-operative international endeavour seeking to develop the research necessary to test the feasibility and performance of fourth generation nuclear systems, and to make them available for industrial deployment by 2030." It was established in 2001, aiming at availability for industrial deployment by 2030.[1]

In November 2013, a brief overview of the reactor designs and activities by each forum member was made available.[12][13][14] An update of the technology roadmap which details R&D objectives for the next decade was published in January 2014.[15]

In May 2019, Terrestrial Energy, the Canadian developer of a molten salt reactor, became the first private company to join GIF.[5]

At the Forum's October 2021 meeting, the Forum members agreed to create a task force on non-electric applications of nuclear heat, including district and industrial heat applications, desalination and large-scale hydrogen production.[16]

Timelines

The GIF Forum has introduced development timelines for each of the six systems. Research and development is divided into three phases:

  • Viability: test basic concepts under relevant conditions; identify and resolve all "potential technical show-stoppers";
  • Performance: verify and optimise "engineering-scale processes, phenomena and materials capabilities" under prototypical conditions;
  • Demonstration: complete and license the detailed design and carry out construction and operation of prototype or demonstration systems.[15]

In 2000, GIF stated, "After the performance phase is complete for each system, at least six years and several US$ billion will be required for detailed design and construction of a demonstration system."[17] In the Roadmap update of 2013, the performance and demonstration phases were considerably shifted to later dates, while no targets for the commercialisation phases are set.[15] According to the GIF, "It will take at least two or three decades before the deployment of commercial Gen IV systems."[9]

Reactor types

Many reactor types were considered initially; the list was then refined to focus on the most promising technologies.[4] Three systems are nominally thermal reactors and three are fast reactors. The Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) potentially can provide high quality process heat. Fast reactors offer the possibility of burning actinides to further reduce waste and can breed more fuel than they consume. These systems offer significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, economics, proliferation resistance, and physical protection.

Thermal reactors

A thermal reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses slow or thermal neutrons. A neutron moderator is used to slow the neutrons emitted by fission to make them more likely to be captured by the fuel.

Very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR)

 
Very-high-temperature reactor

The very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) uses a graphite-moderated core with a once-through uranium fuel cycle, using helium or molten salt. This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1,000°C. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a pebble bed reactor design. The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or hydrogen production via the thermochemical sulfur-iodine cycle process.

In 2012, as part of its next generation nuclear plant competition, Idaho National Laboratory approved a design similar to Areva's prismatic block Antares reactor to be deployed as a prototype by 2021.[18]

In January 2016, X-energy was provided a five-year grant of up to $40 million by the United States Department of Energy to advance their reactor development.[19][20][21] The Xe-100 is a PBMR that would generate 80 MWe, or 320 MWe in a 'four-pack'.[22]

Since 2021, the Chinese government is operating a demonstration HTR-PM 200-MW high temperature pebble bed reactor as a successor to its HTR-10.[6][7]

Molten-salt reactor (MSR)

 
Molten Salt Reactor (MSR)

A molten salt reactor (MSR) is a type of reactor where the primary coolant or the fuel itself is a molten salt mixture. It operates at high temperature and low pressure.[23]

Molten salt can be used for thermal, epithermal and fast reactors. Since 2005 the focus has been on fast spectrum MSRs (MSFR).[24]

Other designs include integral molten salt reactors (e.g. IMSR) and molten chloride salt fast reactors (MCSFR).

Early thermal spectrum concepts and many current ones rely on uranium tetrafluoride (UF4) or thorium tetrafluoride (ThF4), dissolved in molten fluoride salt. The fluid reaches criticality by flowing into a core with a graphite moderator. The fuel may be dispersed in a graphite matrix. These designs are more accurately termed an epithermal reactor than a thermal reactor due to the higher average speed of the neutrons that cause the fission events.[25]

MCSFR does away with the graphite moderator. They achieve criticality using a sufficient volume of salt and fissile material. They can consume much more of the fuel and leave only short-lived waste.

Most MSR designs are derived from the 1960s Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE). Variants include the conceptual Dual fluid reactor that uses lead as a cooling medium with molten salt fuel, commonly a metal chloride, e.g. plutonium(III) chloride, to aid in greater closed-fuel cycle capabilities. Other notable approaches include the Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) concept, which encases the molten salt in the well-established fuel rods of conventional reactors. This latter design was found to be the most competitive by consultancy firm Energy Process Development in 2015.[26][27]

Another design under development is TerraPower's Molten Chloride Fast Reactor. This concept mixes the liquid natural uranium and molten chloride coolant in the reactor core, reaching very high temperatures at atmospheric pressure.[28]

Another notable feature of the MSR is the possibility of a thermal spectrum nuclear waste-burner. Conventionally only fast spectrum reactors have been considered viable for utilization or reduction of the spent nuclear fuel. Thermal waste-burning was achieved by replacing a fraction of the uranium in the spent nuclear fuel with thorium. The net production rate of transuranic elements (e.g. plutonium and americium) is below the consumption rate, thus reducing the nuclear storage problem, without the nuclear proliferation concerns and other technical issues associated with a fast reactor.

Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR)

 
Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)

The supercritical water reactor (SCWR)[23] is a reduced moderation water reactor concept. Because the average speed of the fission-causing neutrons within the fuel is faster than thermal neutrons, it is more accurately termed an epithermal reactor than a thermal reactor. It uses supercritical water as the working fluid. SCWRs are basically light water reactors (LWR) operating at higher pressure and temperatures with a direct, once-through heat exchange cycle. As commonly envisioned, it would operate on a direct cycle, much like a boiling water reactor (BWR). Since it uses supercritical water (not to be confused with critical mass) as the working fluid, it would have only one water phase. This makes the heat exchange method more similar to a pressurized water reactor (PWR). It could operate at much higher temperatures than both current PWRs and BWRs.

Supercritical water-cooled reactors (SCWRs) offer high thermal efficiency (i.e., about 45% vs. about 33% efficiency for current LWRs) and considerable simplification.

The mission of the SCWR is generation of low-cost electricity. It is built upon two proven technologies, LWRs, the most commonly deployed power generating reactors, and superheated fossil fuel fired boilers, also in wide use. 32 organizations in 13 countries are investigating the concept.[citation needed]

SCWRs share the steam explosion and radioactive steam release hazards of BWRs and LWRs as well as the need for extremely expensive heavy duty pressure vessels, pipes, valves, and pumps. These shared problems are inherently more severe for SCWRs due to their higher temperatures.

One SCWR design under development is the VVER-1700/393 (VVER-SCWR or VVER-SKD) – a Russian SCWR with double-inlet-core and a breeding ratio of 0.95.[29]

Fast reactors

A fast reactor directly uses fission neutrons without moderation. Fast reactors can be configured to "burn", or fission, all actinides, and given enough time, therefore drastically reduce the actinides fraction in spent nuclear fuel produced by the present world fleet of thermal neutron light water reactors, thus closing the fuel cycle. Alternatively, if configured differently, they can breed more actinide fuel than they consume.

Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR)

 
Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR)

The gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR)[23] features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle. The reactor is helium-cooled. Its outlet temperature is 850 °C. It moves the very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) to a more sustainable fuel cycle. It uses a direct Brayton cycle gas turbine for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are under consideration: composite ceramic fuel, advanced fuel particles, or ceramic-clad actinide compounds. Core configurations involve pin- or plate-based fuel assemblies or prismatic blocks.

The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative provided funding for three Generation IV reactor systems:

  • Allegro: a 100 MWt gas-cooled fast reactor, planned for central or eastern Europe.[30] The central European Visegrád Group are pursuing the technology.[31]
  • GoFastR: In 2013 German, British, and French institutes finished a 3-year collaboration study on the follow-on industrial scale design.[32] They were funded by the EU's 7th FWP framework programme, with the goal of making a sustainable VHTR.[33]

Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR)

 
Pool design Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)

Sodium-cooled fast reactors (SCFRs) have been operated in multiple countries since the 1980s.

The two largest experimental sodium cooled fast reactors are in Russia, the BN-600 and the BN-800 (880 MWe gross). These NPPs are being used to provide operating experience and technological solutions that will be applied to the construction of the BN-1200 (OKBM Afrikantov first Gen IV reactor).[34] The largest ever operated was the French Superphenix reactor at over 1200 MWe, successfully operating before decommissioning in 1996. In India, the Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) reached criticality in October 1985. In September 2002, fuel burn up efficiency in the FBTR for the first time reached the 100,000 megawatt-days per metric ton uranium (MWd/MTU) mark. This is considered an important milestone in Indian breeder reactor technology. Using that experience, the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor, a 500 MWe Sodium cooled fast reactor is being built at a cost of INR 5,677 crores (~US$900 million). After numerous delays, the government reported in March 2020 that the reactor might be operational in December 2021.[35] The PFBR was to be followed by six more Commercial Fast Breeder Reactors (CFBRs) of 600 MWe each.

The Gen IV SFR[23] is a project that builds on the oxide fueled fast breeder reactor and the metal fueled integral fast reactor. Its goals are to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by breeding plutonium and eliminating transuranic isotopes. The reactor design uses an unmoderated core running on fast neutrons, designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). SFR fuel expands when the reactor overheats, automatically slowing down the chain reaction, making it passively safe.[36]

One SFR reactor concept is cooled by liquid sodium and fueled by a metallic alloy of uranium and plutonium or spent nuclear fuel, the "nuclear waste" of light water reactors. The SFR fuel is contained in steel cladding. Liquid sodium fills the space between the clad elements that make up the fuel assembly. One of the design challenges is the risks of handling sodium, which reacts explosively if it comes into contact with water. The use of liquid metal instead of water as coolant allows the system to work at atmospheric pressure, reducing the risk of leakage.

 
The sustainable fuel-cycle proposed in the 1990s Integral fast reactor concept (color), an animation of the pyroprocessing technology is also available.[37]
 
IFR concept (Black and White with clearer text)

The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative funded three Generation IV reactor systems. Advanced Sodium Technical Reactor for Industrial Demonstration (ASTRID) was a sodium-cooled fast reactor,[38] that was cancelled in August 2019.[39]

Numerous progenitors of the Gen IV SFR exist. The 400 MWt Fast Flux Test Facility operated for ten years at Hanford; the 20 MWe EBR II operated for over thirty years at Idaho National Laboratory, but was shut down in 1994.

GE Hitachi's PRISM reactor is a modernized and commercial implementation of the Integral Fast Reactor (IFR), developed by Argonne National Laboratory between 1984 and 1994. The primary purpose of PRISM is burning up spent nuclear fuel from other reactors, rather than breeding new fuel. The design reduces the half lives of the fissionable elements present in spent nuclear fuel while generating electricity largely as a byproduct.

Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR)

 
Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor

The lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR)[23] features a fast-neutron-spectrum lead or lead/bismuth eutectic (LBE) coolant with a closed fuel cycle. Proposals include a small 50 to 150 MWe that features a long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300 to 400 MWe, and a large monolithic plant at 1,200 MWe. The fuel is metal or nitride-based containing fertile uranium and transuranics. The reactor is cooled by natural convection with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550-800 °C. The higher temperature enables the production of hydrogen by thermochemical processes.

The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative is funding a 100 MWt LFR, an accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor called MYRRHA. It is to be built in Belgium with construction expected by 2036. A reduced-power model called Guinevere was started up at Mol in March 2009[30] and became operational in 2012.[40]

Two other lead-cooled fast reactors under development are the SVBR-100, a modular 100 MWe lead-bismuth cooled fast neutron reactor concept designed by OKB Gidropress in Russia and the BREST-OD-300 (Lead-cooled fast reactor) 300 MWe, to be developed after the SVBR-100, it will dispense with the fertile blanket around the core and will supersede the sodium cooled BN-600 reactor design, to purportedly give enhanced proliferation resistance.[29] Preparatory construction work commenced in May 2020.[41]

Assessment

The GEN IV Forum reframes the reactor safety paradigm, from accepting that nuclear accidents can occur and should be mastered, to eliminating the physical possibility of an accident. Active and passive safety systems would be at least as effective as those of Generation III systems and render the most severe accidents physically impossible.[42]

Relative to Gen II-III, advantages of Gen IV reactors include:

  • Nuclear waste that remains radioactive for a few centuries instead of millennia[43]
  • 100–300x energy yield from the same amount of nuclear fuel[44]
  • Broader range of fuels, including unencapsulated raw fuels (non-pebble MSR, LFTR).
  • Potential to burn existing nuclear waste and produce electricity: a closed fuel cycle.
  • Improved safety via features such as ambient pressure operation, automatic passive reactor shutdown, and alternate coolants.

A specific risk of the SFR is related to using metallic sodium as a coolant. In case of a breach, sodium explosively reacts with water. Argon is used to prevent sodium oxidation. Argon can displace oxygen in the air and can pose hypoxia concerns for workers. This was a factor at the loop type Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor Monju at Tsuruga, Japan.[45] Using lead or molten salt coolants mitigates this problem as they are less reactive and have a high freezing temperature and ambient pressure. Lead has much higher viscosity, much higher density, lower heat capacity, and more radioactive neutron activation products than sodium.

Multiple proof of concept Gen IV designs have been built. For example, the reactors at Fort St. Vrain Generating Station and HTR-10 are similar to the proposed Gen IV VHTR designs, and the pool type EBR-II, Phénix, BN-600 and BN-800 reactor are similar to the proposed pool type Gen IV SFR designs.

Nuclear engineer David Lochbaum cautions, "the problem with new reactors and accidents is twofold: scenarios arise that are impossible to plan for in simulations; and humans make mistakes".[46] As one director of a U.S. research laboratory put it, "fabrication, construction, operation, and maintenance of new reactors will face a steep learning curve: advanced technologies will have a heightened risk of accidents and mistakes. The technology may be proven, but people are not".[46]

Design projects

Summary of designs for Gen IV reactors[47]
Type Neutron Spectrum Coolant Temperature (°C) Fuel Cycle Size (MW) Example developers
VHTR Thermal Helium 900–1000 Open 250–300 JAEA (HTTR), Tsinghua University (HTR-10), Tsinghua University & China Nuclear Engineering Corporation (HTR-PM),[48] X-energy[49]
SFR Fast Sodium 550 Closed 30–150, 300–1500, 1000–2000 TerraPower (Natrium, TWR), Toshiba (4S), GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy (PRISM), OKBM Afrikantov (BN-1200), China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) (CFR-600),[50] Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor)
SCWR Thermal or fast Water 510–625 Open or closed 300–700, 1000–1500 VVER-1700/393 (VVER-SCWR or VVER-SKD)
GFR Fast Helium 850 Closed 1200 Energy Multiplier Module
LFR Fast Lead 480–800 Closed 20–180, 300–1200, 600–1000 BREST-OD-300, MYRRHA, SEALER[51]
MSR Fast or thermal Fluoride or chloride salts 700–800 Closed 250–1000 Seaborg Technologies, TerraPower, Elysium Industries, Moltex Energy, Flibe Energy (LFTR), Copenhagen Atomics, Thorium Tech Solution (FUJI MSR), Terrestrial Energy (IMSR), Southern Company,[49] ThorCon

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Welcome to Generation IV International forum. GIF (accessed Feb 2023)
  2. ^ a b c d Locatelli, Giorgio; Mancini, Mauro; Todeschini, Nicola (2013-10-01). "Generation IV nuclear reactors: Current status and future prospects". Energy Policy. 61: 1503–1520. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.06.101.
  3. ^ a b De Clercq, Geert (October 13, 2014). "Can Sodium Save Nuclear Power?". Scientific American.
  4. ^ a b Generation IV Nuclear Reactors. World Nuclear Association, update Dec 2020
  5. ^ a b Generation IV Nuclear Reactors. World Nuclear Association. Updated December 2020. Accessed April 24, 2023.
  6. ^ a b "China's HTR-PM reactor achieves first criticality : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News". www.world-nuclear-news.org. 13 September 2021.
  7. ^ a b "Dual criticality for Chinese demonstration HTR-PM : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News".
  8. ^ Moir, Ralph; Teller, Edward (2005). "Thorium-Fueled Underground Power Plant Based on Molten Salt Technology". Nuclear Technology. 151 (3): 334–340. Bibcode:2005NucTe.151..334M. doi:10.13182/NT05-A3655. S2CID 36982574. Retrieved March 22, 2012.
  9. ^ a b FAQ 2: When will Gen IV reactors be built? GEN IV International Forum (accessed Nov. 2021)
  10. ^ "GIF Membership". gen-4.org. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
  11. ^ Origins of the GIF. GEN IV International Forum Nov 2021)
  12. ^ "Generation IV International Forum Updates Technology Roadmap and Builds Future Collaboration". Energy.gov.
  13. ^ "The Generation IV international forum holds their 36th meeting on Monday 18th Nov 2013 in Brussels".
  14. ^ (PDF). January 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 July 2014.
  15. ^ a b c (PDF). January 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2014.
  16. ^ Nuclear Energy Agency. Updates from the Generation IV International Forum (GIF). Published November 4, 2021. Accessed April 24, 2023.
  17. ^ , p. 79-82 (4.5 MB). U.S. DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee and the GIF, Dec 2002
  18. ^ "Areva modular reactor selected for NGNP development". World Nuclear News. 15 February 2012. Retrieved 4 June 2019.
  19. ^ Fountain, Henry (2016-01-19). "U.S. Acts to Spur Development of High-Tech Reactors". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-10-12.
  20. ^ Fehrenbacher, Katie (2016-02-16). "Meet a Startup Making a New Kind of Safer, Smaller Nuclear Reactor". Fortune. Retrieved 2021-10-12.
  21. ^ Conca, James (2017-03-27). "X-Energy Steps Into The Ring With Its Advanced Pebble Bed Modular Nuclear Reactor". Forbes. Retrieved 2021-10-12.
  22. ^ Reactor: Xe-100. X Energy (accessed Feb 2023)
  23. ^ a b c d e US DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee (2002). (PDF). GIF-002-00. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-11-29. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  24. ^ H. Boussier, S. Delpech, V. Ghetta et Al. : The Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) in Generation IV: Overview and Perspectives, GIF SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS/2012 ANNUAL REPORT, NEA No. 7141, pp95 [1]
  25. ^ "Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen. IV reactors".
  26. ^ "Europe: Moltex' Stable Salt Reactor". 20 April 2015.
  27. ^ "Moltex Energy sees UK, Canada SMR licensing as springboard to Asia - Nuclear Energy Insider". analysis.nuclearenergyinsider.com.
  28. ^ Tennenbaum, Jonathan (February 4, 2020). "Molten salt and traveling wave nuclear reactors". Asia Times.
  29. ^ a b . March 24, 2010. Archived from the original on May 1, 2015. Retrieved December 4, 2013.
  30. ^ a b . Archived from the original on 2013-10-09.
  31. ^ "The V4G4 Centre of Excellence for performing joint research, development and innovation in the field of Generation-4 (G4) nuclear reactors have been established". www.alphagalileo.org. 27 July 2023.
  32. ^ . Archived from the original on 2013-12-13.
  33. ^ . Archived from the original on 2016-06-10. Retrieved 2013-12-04.
  34. ^ "Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors". world-nuclear.org. World Nuclear Association. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
  35. ^ "India's First Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor Has a New Deadline. Should We Trust It?".
  36. ^ David Baurac. "Passively safe reactors rely on nature to keep them cool".
  37. ^ "Historical video about the Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) concept". Nuclear Engineering at Argonne. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21.
  38. ^ "UK and France Sign Landmark Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement". POWER Magazine. February 22, 2012.
  39. ^ "Nucléaire : la France abandonne la quatrième génération de réacteurs". Le Monde.fr. 29 August 2019.
  40. ^ Hellemans, Alexander (12 January 2012). "Reactor-Accelerator Hybrid Achieves Successful Test Run". Science Insider. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
  41. ^ Preparatory construction for Brest-300 reactor begins in Russia, Nuclear Engineering International. 22 May 2020
  42. ^ What is the risk of a severe accident resembling Chernobyl or Fukushima in a Gen IV design? GEN IV International Forum (accessed Nov. 2021).
    "The aim of Generation IV systems is to maintain the high level of safety achieved by today's reactors, while shifting from the current principle of "mastering accidents" (i.e. accepting that accidents can occur, but taking care that the population is not affected) to the principle of "excluding accidents"."
  43. ^ "Strategies to Address Global Warming" (PDF).
  44. ^ "4th Generation Nuclear Power — OSS Foundation". www.ossfoundation.us.
  45. ^ Tabuchi, Hiroko (17 June 2011). "Japan Strains to Fix a Reactor Damaged Before Quake". The New York Times.
  46. ^ a b Sovacool, Benjamin K. (August 2010). "A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia". Journal of Contemporary Asia. 40 (3): 369–400. doi:10.1080/00472331003798350. ISSN 0047-2336. S2CID 154882872.
  47. ^ "GIF R&D Outlook for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems" (PDF). 21 August 2009. Retrieved August 30, 2018.
  48. ^ "Key components of second HTR-PM reactor connected". World Nuclear News. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
  49. ^ a b "Energy Department Announces New Investments in Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors…". US Department of Energy. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
  50. ^ "China begins building pilot fast reactor". World Nuclear News. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
  51. ^ The SEALER (LeadCold)

External links

  • Article from Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen. IV reactors.
  • Generation IV International Forum (GIF)
  • Science or Fiction - Is there a Future for Nuclear? (Nov. 2007) - A publication from the Austrian Ecology Institute about 'Generation IV' and Fusion reactors.
  • Gail H. Marcus (December 2011). "Nuclear Power After Fukushima". Mechanical Engineering (the magazine of ASME). Retrieved 23 January 2012. "In the wake of a severe plant accident, advanced reactor designs are getting renewed attention."
  • International Thorium Energy Organisation - www.IThEO.org
  • International Thorium Energy Committee - iThEC

generation, reactor, nuclear, reactor, design, technologies, that, envisioned, successors, generation, reactors, generation, international, forum, international, organization, that, coordinates, development, generation, reactors, specifically, selected, reacto. Generation IV reactors Gen IV are nuclear reactor design technologies that are envisioned as successors of generation III reactors The Generation IV International Forum GIF an international organization that coordinates the development of generation IV reactors specifically selected six reactor technologies as candidates for generation IV reactors 1 2 The designs target improved safety sustainability efficiency and cost The first commercial Gen IV plants are not expected before 2040 2050 3 although the World Nuclear Association in 2015 suggested that some might enter commercial operation before 2030 4 Contents 1 Overview 1 1 Generation IV International Forum 1 2 Timelines 2 Reactor types 2 1 Thermal reactors 2 1 1 Very high temperature reactor VHTR 2 1 2 Molten salt reactor MSR 2 1 3 Supercritical water cooled reactor SCWR 2 2 Fast reactors 2 2 1 Gas cooled fast reactor GFR 2 2 2 Sodium cooled fast reactor SFR 2 2 3 Lead cooled fast reactor LFR 3 Assessment 4 Design projects 5 See also 6 References 7 External linksOverview EditNo precise definition of a Generation IV reactor exists However the term is intended to refer to nuclear reactor technologies that were under development as of approximately 2000 and whose designs were at least at that time believed to represent the future shape of nuclear energy 5 The six designs selected at that time were the gas cooled fast reactor GFR the lead cooled fast reactor LFR the molten salt reactor MSR the sodium cooled fast reactor SFR the supercritical water cooled reactor SCWR and the very high temperature reactor VHTR 1 2 The majority of reactors in operation around the world are considered second generation and third generation reactor systems as the majority of the first generation systems have been retired Since 2021 China is the first country to operate a demonstration generation IV reactor the HTR PM 6 7 of the pebble bed type Meanwhile Generation V reactors are purely theoretical and are not yet considered feasible The most developed Gen IV reactor design is the sodium fast reactor It has received the greatest share of funding that supports demonstration facilities Moir and Teller consider the molten salt reactor a less developed technology as potentially having the greatest inherent safety of the six models 8 3 The very high temperature reactor designs operate at much higher temperatures than prior generations This allows for high temperature electrolysis or for sulfur iodine cycle for the efficient production of hydrogen and the synthesis of carbon neutral fuels 2 Generation IV International Forum Edit The Generation IV International Forum GIF is an international organization with its stated goal being the development of concepts for one or more Generation IV systems that can be licensed constructed and operated in a manner that will provide a competitively priced and reliable supply of energy while satisfactorily addressing nuclear safety waste proliferation and public perception concerns 9 It coordinates the development of GEN IV technologies 2 It has been instrumental in coordinating research into the six types of Generation IV reactors and in defining the scope and meaning of the term itself As of 2021 active members include Australia Canada China the European Atomic Energy Community Euratom France Japan Russia South Africa South Korea Switzerland the United Kingdom and the United States Non active members include Argentina and Brazil 10 The Forum was initiated in January 2000 by the Office of Nuclear Energy of the U S Department of Energy s DOE 11 as a co operative international endeavour seeking to develop the research necessary to test the feasibility and performance of fourth generation nuclear systems and to make them available for industrial deployment by 2030 It was established in 2001 aiming at availability for industrial deployment by 2030 1 In November 2013 a brief overview of the reactor designs and activities by each forum member was made available 12 13 14 An update of the technology roadmap which details R amp D objectives for the next decade was published in January 2014 15 In May 2019 Terrestrial Energy the Canadian developer of a molten salt reactor became the first private company to join GIF 5 At the Forum s October 2021 meeting the Forum members agreed to create a task force on non electric applications of nuclear heat including district and industrial heat applications desalination and large scale hydrogen production 16 Timelines Edit The GIF Forum has introduced development timelines for each of the six systems Research and development is divided into three phases Viability test basic concepts under relevant conditions identify and resolve all potential technical show stoppers Performance verify and optimise engineering scale processes phenomena and materials capabilities under prototypical conditions Demonstration complete and license the detailed design and carry out construction and operation of prototype or demonstration systems 15 In 2000 GIF stated After the performance phase is complete for each system at least six years and several US billion will be required for detailed design and construction of a demonstration system 17 In the Roadmap update of 2013 the performance and demonstration phases were considerably shifted to later dates while no targets for the commercialisation phases are set 15 According to the GIF It will take at least two or three decades before the deployment of commercial Gen IV systems 9 Reactor types EditMany reactor types were considered initially the list was then refined to focus on the most promising technologies 4 Three systems are nominally thermal reactors and three are fast reactors The Very High Temperature Reactor VHTR potentially can provide high quality process heat Fast reactors offer the possibility of burning actinides to further reduce waste and can breed more fuel than they consume These systems offer significant advances in sustainability safety and reliability economics proliferation resistance and physical protection Thermal reactors Edit A thermal reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses slow or thermal neutrons A neutron moderator is used to slow the neutrons emitted by fission to make them more likely to be captured by the fuel Very high temperature reactor VHTR Edit Very high temperature reactorMain article Very high temperature reactor The very high temperature reactor VHTR uses a graphite moderated core with a once through uranium fuel cycle using helium or molten salt This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1 000 C The reactor core can be either a prismatic block or a pebble bed reactor design The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or hydrogen production via the thermochemical sulfur iodine cycle process In 2012 as part of its next generation nuclear plant competition Idaho National Laboratory approved a design similar to Areva s prismatic block Antares reactor to be deployed as a prototype by 2021 18 In January 2016 X energy was provided a five year grant of up to 40 million by the United States Department of Energy to advance their reactor development 19 20 21 The Xe 100 is a PBMR that would generate 80 MWe or 320 MWe in a four pack 22 Since 2021 the Chinese government is operating a demonstration HTR PM 200 MW high temperature pebble bed reactor as a successor to its HTR 10 6 7 Molten salt reactor MSR Edit Molten Salt Reactor MSR Main article Molten salt reactor See also Liquid fluoride thorium reactor A molten salt reactor MSR is a type of reactor where the primary coolant or the fuel itself is a molten salt mixture It operates at high temperature and low pressure 23 Molten salt can be used for thermal epithermal and fast reactors Since 2005 the focus has been on fast spectrum MSRs MSFR 24 Other designs include integral molten salt reactors e g IMSR and molten chloride salt fast reactors MCSFR Early thermal spectrum concepts and many current ones rely on uranium tetrafluoride UF4 or thorium tetrafluoride ThF4 dissolved in molten fluoride salt The fluid reaches criticality by flowing into a core with a graphite moderator The fuel may be dispersed in a graphite matrix These designs are more accurately termed an epithermal reactor than a thermal reactor due to the higher average speed of the neutrons that cause the fission events 25 MCSFR does away with the graphite moderator They achieve criticality using a sufficient volume of salt and fissile material They can consume much more of the fuel and leave only short lived waste Most MSR designs are derived from the 1960s Molten Salt Reactor Experiment MSRE Variants include the conceptual Dual fluid reactor that uses lead as a cooling medium with molten salt fuel commonly a metal chloride e g plutonium III chloride to aid in greater closed fuel cycle capabilities Other notable approaches include the Stable Salt Reactor SSR concept which encases the molten salt in the well established fuel rods of conventional reactors This latter design was found to be the most competitive by consultancy firm Energy Process Development in 2015 26 27 Another design under development is TerraPower s Molten Chloride Fast Reactor This concept mixes the liquid natural uranium and molten chloride coolant in the reactor core reaching very high temperatures at atmospheric pressure 28 Another notable feature of the MSR is the possibility of a thermal spectrum nuclear waste burner Conventionally only fast spectrum reactors have been considered viable for utilization or reduction of the spent nuclear fuel Thermal waste burning was achieved by replacing a fraction of the uranium in the spent nuclear fuel with thorium The net production rate of transuranic elements e g plutonium and americium is below the consumption rate thus reducing the nuclear storage problem without the nuclear proliferation concerns and other technical issues associated with a fast reactor Supercritical water cooled reactor SCWR Edit Supercritical Water Cooled Reactor SCWR Main article Supercritical water reactor The supercritical water reactor SCWR 23 is a reduced moderation water reactor concept Because the average speed of the fission causing neutrons within the fuel is faster than thermal neutrons it is more accurately termed an epithermal reactor than a thermal reactor It uses supercritical water as the working fluid SCWRs are basically light water reactors LWR operating at higher pressure and temperatures with a direct once through heat exchange cycle As commonly envisioned it would operate on a direct cycle much like a boiling water reactor BWR Since it uses supercritical water not to be confused with critical mass as the working fluid it would have only one water phase This makes the heat exchange method more similar to a pressurized water reactor PWR It could operate at much higher temperatures than both current PWRs and BWRs Supercritical water cooled reactors SCWRs offer high thermal efficiency i e about 45 vs about 33 efficiency for current LWRs and considerable simplification The mission of the SCWR is generation of low cost electricity It is built upon two proven technologies LWRs the most commonly deployed power generating reactors and superheated fossil fuel fired boilers also in wide use 32 organizations in 13 countries are investigating the concept citation needed SCWRs share the steam explosion and radioactive steam release hazards of BWRs and LWRs as well as the need for extremely expensive heavy duty pressure vessels pipes valves and pumps These shared problems are inherently more severe for SCWRs due to their higher temperatures One SCWR design under development is the VVER 1700 393 VVER SCWR or VVER SKD a Russian SCWR with double inlet core and a breeding ratio of 0 95 29 Fast reactors Edit A fast reactor directly uses fission neutrons without moderation Fast reactors can be configured to burn or fission all actinides and given enough time therefore drastically reduce the actinides fraction in spent nuclear fuel produced by the present world fleet of thermal neutron light water reactors thus closing the fuel cycle Alternatively if configured differently they can breed more actinide fuel than they consume Gas cooled fast reactor GFR Edit Gas Cooled Fast Reactor GFR Main article Gas cooled fast reactor The gas cooled fast reactor GFR 23 features a fast neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle The reactor is helium cooled Its outlet temperature is 850 C It moves the very high temperature reactor VHTR to a more sustainable fuel cycle It uses a direct Brayton cycle gas turbine for high thermal efficiency Several fuel forms are under consideration composite ceramic fuel advanced fuel particles or ceramic clad actinide compounds Core configurations involve pin or plate based fuel assemblies or prismatic blocks The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative provided funding for three Generation IV reactor systems Allegro a 100 MWt gas cooled fast reactor planned for central or eastern Europe 30 The central European Visegrad Group are pursuing the technology 31 GoFastR In 2013 German British and French institutes finished a 3 year collaboration study on the follow on industrial scale design 32 They were funded by the EU s 7th FWP framework programme with the goal of making a sustainable VHTR 33 Sodium cooled fast reactor SFR Edit Pool design Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor SFR Main article Sodium cooled fast reactor See also Experimental Breeder Reactor II S PRISM Toshiba 4S and CFR 600 Sodium cooled fast reactors SCFRs have been operated in multiple countries since the 1980s The two largest experimental sodium cooled fast reactors are in Russia the BN 600 and the BN 800 880 MWe gross These NPPs are being used to provide operating experience and technological solutions that will be applied to the construction of the BN 1200 OKBM Afrikantov first Gen IV reactor 34 The largest ever operated was the French Superphenix reactor at over 1200 MWe successfully operating before decommissioning in 1996 In India the Fast Breeder Test Reactor FBTR reached criticality in October 1985 In September 2002 fuel burn up efficiency in the FBTR for the first time reached the 100 000 megawatt days per metric ton uranium MWd MTU mark This is considered an important milestone in Indian breeder reactor technology Using that experience the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor a 500 MWe Sodium cooled fast reactor is being built at a cost of INR 5 677 crores US 900 million After numerous delays the government reported in March 2020 that the reactor might be operational in December 2021 35 The PFBR was to be followed by six more Commercial Fast Breeder Reactors CFBRs of 600 MWe each The Gen IV SFR 23 is a project that builds on the oxide fueled fast breeder reactor and the metal fueled integral fast reactor Its goals are to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by breeding plutonium and eliminating transuranic isotopes The reactor design uses an unmoderated core running on fast neutrons designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed and in some cases used as fuel SFR fuel expands when the reactor overheats automatically slowing down the chain reaction making it passively safe 36 One SFR reactor concept is cooled by liquid sodium and fueled by a metallic alloy of uranium and plutonium or spent nuclear fuel the nuclear waste of light water reactors The SFR fuel is contained in steel cladding Liquid sodium fills the space between the clad elements that make up the fuel assembly One of the design challenges is the risks of handling sodium which reacts explosively if it comes into contact with water The use of liquid metal instead of water as coolant allows the system to work at atmospheric pressure reducing the risk of leakage The sustainable fuel cycle proposed in the 1990s Integral fast reactor concept color an animation of the pyroprocessing technology is also available 37 IFR concept Black and White with clearer text The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative funded three Generation IV reactor systems Advanced Sodium Technical Reactor for Industrial Demonstration ASTRID was a sodium cooled fast reactor 38 that was cancelled in August 2019 39 Numerous progenitors of the Gen IV SFR exist The 400 MWt Fast Flux Test Facility operated for ten years at Hanford the 20 MWe EBR II operated for over thirty years at Idaho National Laboratory but was shut down in 1994 GE Hitachi s PRISM reactor is a modernized and commercial implementation of the Integral Fast Reactor IFR developed by Argonne National Laboratory between 1984 and 1994 The primary purpose of PRISM is burning up spent nuclear fuel from other reactors rather than breeding new fuel The design reduces the half lives of the fissionable elements present in spent nuclear fuel while generating electricity largely as a byproduct Lead cooled fast reactor LFR Edit Lead Cooled Fast ReactorMain article Lead cooled fast reactor See also MYRRHA The lead cooled fast reactor LFR 23 features a fast neutron spectrum lead or lead bismuth eutectic LBE coolant with a closed fuel cycle Proposals include a small 50 to 150 MWe that features a long refueling interval a modular system rated at 300 to 400 MWe and a large monolithic plant at 1 200 MWe The fuel is metal or nitride based containing fertile uranium and transuranics The reactor is cooled by natural convection with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550 800 C The higher temperature enables the production of hydrogen by thermochemical processes The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative is funding a 100 MWt LFR an accelerator driven sub critical reactor called MYRRHA It is to be built in Belgium with construction expected by 2036 A reduced power model called Guinevere was started up at Mol in March 2009 30 and became operational in 2012 40 Two other lead cooled fast reactors under development are the SVBR 100 a modular 100 MWe lead bismuth cooled fast neutron reactor concept designed by OKB Gidropress in Russia and the BREST OD 300 Lead cooled fast reactor 300 MWe to be developed after the SVBR 100 it will dispense with the fertile blanket around the core and will supersede the sodium cooled BN 600 reactor design to purportedly give enhanced proliferation resistance 29 Preparatory construction work commenced in May 2020 41 Assessment EditThe GEN IV Forum reframes the reactor safety paradigm from accepting that nuclear accidents can occur and should be mastered to eliminating the physical possibility of an accident Active and passive safety systems would be at least as effective as those of Generation III systems and render the most severe accidents physically impossible 42 Relative to Gen II III advantages of Gen IV reactors include Nuclear waste that remains radioactive for a few centuries instead of millennia 43 100 300x energy yield from the same amount of nuclear fuel 44 Broader range of fuels including unencapsulated raw fuels non pebble MSR LFTR Potential to burn existing nuclear waste and produce electricity a closed fuel cycle Improved safety via features such as ambient pressure operation automatic passive reactor shutdown and alternate coolants A specific risk of the SFR is related to using metallic sodium as a coolant In case of a breach sodium explosively reacts with water Argon is used to prevent sodium oxidation Argon can displace oxygen in the air and can pose hypoxia concerns for workers This was a factor at the loop type Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor Monju at Tsuruga Japan 45 Using lead or molten salt coolants mitigates this problem as they are less reactive and have a high freezing temperature and ambient pressure Lead has much higher viscosity much higher density lower heat capacity and more radioactive neutron activation products than sodium Multiple proof of concept Gen IV designs have been built For example the reactors at Fort St Vrain Generating Station and HTR 10 are similar to the proposed Gen IV VHTR designs and the pool type EBR II Phenix BN 600 and BN 800 reactor are similar to the proposed pool type Gen IV SFR designs Nuclear engineer David Lochbaum cautions the problem with new reactors and accidents is twofold scenarios arise that are impossible to plan for in simulations and humans make mistakes 46 As one director of a U S research laboratory put it fabrication construction operation and maintenance of new reactors will face a steep learning curve advanced technologies will have a heightened risk of accidents and mistakes The technology may be proven but people are not 46 Design projects EditSummary of designs for Gen IV reactors 47 Type Neutron Spectrum Coolant Temperature C Fuel Cycle Size MW Example developersVHTR Thermal Helium 900 1000 Open 250 300 JAEA HTTR Tsinghua University HTR 10 Tsinghua University amp China Nuclear Engineering Corporation HTR PM 48 X energy 49 SFR Fast Sodium 550 Closed 30 150 300 1500 1000 2000 TerraPower Natrium TWR Toshiba 4S GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy PRISM OKBM Afrikantov BN 1200 China National Nuclear Corporation CNNC CFR 600 50 Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor SCWR Thermal or fast Water 510 625 Open or closed 300 700 1000 1500 VVER 1700 393 VVER SCWR or VVER SKD GFR Fast Helium 850 Closed 1200 Energy Multiplier ModuleLFR Fast Lead 480 800 Closed 20 180 300 1200 600 1000 BREST OD 300 MYRRHA SEALER 51 MSR Fast or thermal Fluoride or chloride salts 700 800 Closed 250 1000 Seaborg Technologies TerraPower Elysium Industries Moltex Energy Flibe Energy LFTR Copenhagen Atomics Thorium Tech Solution FUJI MSR Terrestrial Energy IMSR Southern Company 49 ThorConSee also Edit Energy portal Nuclear technology portalList of small modular reactor designs Nuclear reactor Nuclear material Nuclear physics List of reactor types Generation II reactor Generation III reactor Integral Fast Reactor Liquid fluoride thorium reactor Breeder reactor Small modular reactor List of nuclear reactorsReferences Edit a b c Welcome to Generation IV International forum GIF accessed Feb 2023 a b c d Locatelli Giorgio Mancini Mauro Todeschini Nicola 2013 10 01 Generation IV nuclear reactors Current status and future prospects Energy Policy 61 1503 1520 doi 10 1016 j enpol 2013 06 101 a b De Clercq Geert October 13 2014 Can Sodium Save Nuclear Power Scientific American a b Generation IV Nuclear Reactors World Nuclear Association update Dec 2020 a b Generation IV Nuclear Reactors World Nuclear Association Updated December 2020 Accessed April 24 2023 a b China s HTR PM reactor achieves first criticality New Nuclear World Nuclear News www world nuclear news org 13 September 2021 a b Dual criticality for Chinese demonstration HTR PM New Nuclear World Nuclear News Moir Ralph Teller Edward 2005 Thorium Fueled Underground Power Plant Based on Molten Salt Technology Nuclear Technology 151 3 334 340 Bibcode 2005NucTe 151 334M doi 10 13182 NT05 A3655 S2CID 36982574 Retrieved March 22 2012 a b FAQ 2 When will Gen IV reactors be built GEN IV International Forum accessed Nov 2021 GIF Membership gen 4 org Retrieved 24 May 2020 Origins of the GIF GEN IV International Forum Nov 2021 Generation IV International Forum Updates Technology Roadmap and Builds Future Collaboration Energy gov The Generation IV international forum holds their 36th meeting on Monday 18th Nov 2013 in Brussels Genesis of Generation IV Concept PDF January 2014 Archived from the original PDF on 8 July 2014 a b c Technology Roadmap Update for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems PDF January 2014 Archived from the original PDF on 25 June 2014 Nuclear Energy Agency Updates from the Generation IV International Forum GIF Published November 4 2021 Accessed April 24 2023 A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems p 79 82 4 5 MB U S DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee and the GIF Dec 2002 Areva modular reactor selected for NGNP development World Nuclear News 15 February 2012 Retrieved 4 June 2019 Fountain Henry 2016 01 19 U S Acts to Spur Development of High Tech Reactors The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2021 10 12 Fehrenbacher Katie 2016 02 16 Meet a Startup Making a New Kind of Safer Smaller Nuclear Reactor Fortune Retrieved 2021 10 12 Conca James 2017 03 27 X Energy Steps Into The Ring With Its Advanced Pebble Bed Modular Nuclear Reactor Forbes Retrieved 2021 10 12 Reactor Xe 100 X Energy accessed Feb 2023 a b c d e US DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee 2002 A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems PDF GIF 002 00 Archived from the original PDF on 2007 11 29 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help H Boussier S Delpech V Ghetta et Al The Molten Salt Reactor MSR in Generation IV Overview and Perspectives GIF SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS 2012 ANNUAL REPORT NEA No 7141 pp95 1 Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen IV reactors Europe Moltex Stable Salt Reactor 20 April 2015 Moltex Energy sees UK Canada SMR licensing as springboard to Asia Nuclear Energy Insider analysis nuclearenergyinsider com Tennenbaum Jonathan February 4 2020 Molten salt and traveling wave nuclear reactors Asia Times a b Technology Developments amp Plant Efficiency for the Russian Nuclear Power Generation Market Wednesday March 24 2010 Archived from the original on May 1 2015 Retrieved December 4 2013 a b The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative ESNII will support three Generation IV reactor systems a sodium cooled fast reactor or SFR called Astrid proposed by France but subsequently cancelled a gas cooled fast reactor GFR called Allegro supported by central and eastern Europe and a lead cooled fast reactor LFR technology pilot called Myrrha that is proposed by Belgium Archived from the original on 2013 10 09 The V4G4 Centre of Excellence for performing joint research development and innovation in the field of Generation 4 G4 nuclear reactors have been established www alphagalileo org 27 July 2023 the European Gas cooled Fast Reactor Archived from the original on 2013 12 13 The GOFASTR research program Archived from the original on 2016 06 10 Retrieved 2013 12 04 Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors world nuclear org World Nuclear Association Retrieved 19 September 2022 India s First Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor Has a New Deadline Should We Trust It David Baurac Passively safe reactors rely on nature to keep them cool Historical video about the Integral Fast Reactor IFR concept Nuclear Engineering at Argonne Archived from the original on 2021 12 21 UK and France Sign Landmark Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement POWER Magazine February 22 2012 Nucleaire la France abandonne la quatrieme generation de reacteurs Le Monde fr 29 August 2019 Hellemans Alexander 12 January 2012 Reactor Accelerator Hybrid Achieves Successful Test Run Science Insider Retrieved 29 December 2014 Preparatory construction for Brest 300 reactor begins in Russia Nuclear Engineering International 22 May 2020 What is the risk of a severe accident resembling Chernobyl or Fukushima in a Gen IV design GEN IV International Forum accessed Nov 2021 The aim of Generation IV systems is to maintain the high level of safety achieved by today s reactors while shifting from the current principle of mastering accidents i e accepting that accidents can occur but taking care that the population is not affected to the principle of excluding accidents Strategies to Address Global Warming PDF 4th Generation Nuclear Power OSS Foundation www ossfoundation us Tabuchi Hiroko 17 June 2011 Japan Strains to Fix a Reactor Damaged Before Quake The New York Times a b Sovacool Benjamin K August 2010 A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia Journal of Contemporary Asia 40 3 369 400 doi 10 1080 00472331003798350 ISSN 0047 2336 S2CID 154882872 GIF R amp D Outlook for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems PDF 21 August 2009 Retrieved August 30 2018 Key components of second HTR PM reactor connected World Nuclear News Retrieved 15 July 2021 a b Energy Department Announces New Investments in Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors US Department of Energy Retrieved 16 January 2016 China begins building pilot fast reactor World Nuclear News Retrieved 15 July 2021 The SEALER LeadCold External links EditArticle from Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen IV reactors Generation IV International Forum GIF U S Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy Science and Technology Gen IV presentation Science or Fiction Is there a Future for Nuclear Nov 2007 A publication from the Austrian Ecology Institute about Generation IV and Fusion reactors Gail H Marcus December 2011 Nuclear Power After Fukushima Mechanical Engineering the magazine of ASME Retrieved 23 January 2012 In the wake of a severe plant accident advanced reactor designs are getting renewed attention International Thorium Energy Organisation www IThEO org International Thorium Energy Committee iThEC Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Generation IV reactor amp oldid 1168079296, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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