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Gallipoli campaign

The Gallipoli campaign[a] was a military campaign in the First World War that took place on the Gallipoli peninsula (Gelibolu in modern Turkey), from 17 February 1915 to 9 January 1916. The Entente powers, Britain, France and Russia, sought to weaken the Ottoman Empire, one of the Central Powers, by taking control of the Ottoman straits. This would expose the Ottoman capital at Constantinople to bombardment by Allied battleships and cut it off from the Asian part of the empire. With Turkey defeated, the Suez Canal would be safe and a year-round Allied supply route could be opened through the Black Sea to warm-water ports in Russia.

Gallipoli campaign
Part of the Middle Eastern theatre of the First World War

A collection of photographs from the campaign. From top and left to right: Ottoman commanders including Mustafa Kemal (fourth from left); Allied warships; V Beach from the deck of SS River Clyde; Ottoman soldiers in a trench; and Allied positions
Date17 February 1915 – 9 January 1916
(10 months, 3 weeks and 2 days)
Location40°14′15″N 26°16′39″E / 40.23750°N 26.27750°E / 40.23750; 26.27750Coordinates: 40°14′15″N 26°16′39″E / 40.23750°N 26.27750°E / 40.23750; 26.27750
Result Ottoman victory
Belligerents
 United Kingdom
Naval support:
 Russia
 Ottoman Empire
Supported by:
 Germany[1][2]
 Austria-Hungary[3]
Commanders and leaders
Units involved
Mediterranean Expeditionary Force
Egyptian Labour Corps[5]
Maltese Labour Corps[5]
Oriental Expeditionary Corps
5th Army
German military mission[6]
Strength

5 divisions (initial)
15 divisions (final)
Total: 489,000[7]

  • 345,000 British (including Irish, Indians and Newfoundlanders)
  • 79,000 French[8]
  • c. 50,000 Australians
  • c. 15,000 New Zealanders

Supported by

c. 2,000 civilian labourers[5]

6 divisions (initial)
16 divisions (final)
Total: 315,500[8][9]

  • c. 700 Germans[10]
Casualties and losses

British Empire:
198,340 (31,389 killed
9,708 missing and POW
78,749 wounded
78,494 evacuated sick)[11][7]
France:
9,000 killed & missing
18,000 wounded
20,000 evacuated sick[11]
Australia:
7,594 killed
18,500 wounded
New Zealand:
3,431 killed
4,140 wounded[11]


Total: 300,000 (56,707 killed)[11]

Ottoman Empire:
255,268 (56,643 killed,
97,007 wounded or injured,
11,178 missing or POW
69,440 evacuated sick[12]
21,000 died of disease)[7]


Total: 255,268 (56,643 killed)[7][12]

The attempt by the Allied fleet to force a passage through the Dardanelles in February 1915 failed and was followed by an amphibious landing on the Gallipoli peninsula in April 1915. In January 1916, after eight months' fighting, with approximately 250,000 casualties on each side, the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force withdrawn. It was a costly campaign for the Entente powers and the Ottoman Empire as well as for the sponsors of the expedition, especially the First Lord of the Admiralty (1911–1915), Winston Churchill. The campaign was considered a great Ottoman victory. In Turkey, it is regarded as a defining moment in the history of the state, a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire retreated. The struggle formed the basis for the Turkish War of Independence and the declaration of the Republic of Turkey eight years later, with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli, as founder and president.

The campaign is often considered to be the beginning of Australian and New Zealand national consciousness; 25 April, the anniversary of the landings, is known as Anzac Day, the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in the two countries, surpassing Remembrance Day (Armistice Day).[13][14][15]

Background

On 29 October 1914, two former German warships, the Ottoman Yavûz Sultân Selîm and Midilli, still under the command of German officers, conducted the Black Sea raid, in which they bombarded the Russian port of Odessa and sank several ships.[16] On 31 October, the Ottomans entered the war and began the Caucasus campaign against Russia. The British briefly bombarded forts in Gallipoli, invaded Mesopotamia and studied the possibility of forcing the Dardanelles.[17][18]

Allied strategy and the Dardanelles

 
Sea access to Russia through the Dardanelles (in yellow)

Before the Dardanelles operation was conceived, the British had planned to conduct an amphibious invasion near Alexandretta on the Mediterranean, an idea originally presented by Boghos Nubar in 1914.[19] This plan was made by the Secretary of State for War, Field Marshal Earl Kitchener, to sever the capital from Syria, Palestine and Egypt. Alexandretta was an area with a Christian population and was the strategic centre of the Ottoman railway network—its capture would cut the empire in two. Vice Admiral Sir Richard Peirse, Commander-in-Chief, East Indies, ordered Captain Frank Larkin of HMS Doris to Alexandretta on 13 December 1914. The Russian cruiser Askold and the French cruiser Requin were also there. Kitchener was working on the plan in March 1915 and was the beginning of the British attempt to incite an Arab Revolt. The Alexandretta landing was abandoned because militarily it would have required more resources than France could allocate and politically France did not want the British operating in their sphere of influence, a position to which Britain had agreed in 1912.[20]

By late 1914, on the Western Front, the Franco–British counter-offensive of the First Battle of the Marne had ended and the Belgians, British and French had suffered many casualties in the First Battle of Ypres in Flanders. The war of manoeuvre had ended and been replaced by trench warfare.[21] The German Empire and Austria-Hungary closed the overland trade routes between Britain and France in the west and Russia in the east. The White Sea in the arctic north and the Sea of Okhotsk in the Far East were icebound in winter and distant from the Eastern Front; the Baltic Sea was blockaded by the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy) and the entrance to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles was controlled by the Ottoman Empire.[22] While the Ottomans remained neutral, supplies could still be sent to Russia through the Dardanelles but prior to the Ottoman entry into the war, the straits had been closed; in November the Ottomans began to mine the waterway.[23][24]

The French Minister of Justice, Aristide Briand, proposed in November to attack the Ottoman Empire but this was rejected and an attempt by the British to bribe the Ottomans to join the Allied side also failed.[25] Later that month, Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, proposed a naval attack on the Dardanelles, based in part on erroneous reports of Ottoman troop strength. Churchill wanted to use a large number of obsolete battleships, which could not operate against the German High Seas Fleet, in a Dardanelles operation, with a small occupation force provided by the army. It was hoped that an attack on the Ottomans would also draw Bulgaria and Greece (formerly Ottoman possessions) into the war on the Allied side.[26] On 2 January 1915, Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia appealed to Britain for assistance against the Ottomans, who were campaigning in Caucasus.[27] Planning began for a naval demonstration in the Dardanelles, to divert Ottoman troops from Caucasia.[28]

Attempt to force the Straits

 
Graphic map of the Dardanelles and Gallipoli, showing the Allied bridgeheads at Cape Helles and ANZAC Cove

On 17 February 1915, a British seaplane from HMS Ark Royal flew a reconnaissance sortie over the Straits.[29] Two days later, the first attack on the Dardanelles began when a strong Anglo-French task force, including the British dreadnought HMS Queen Elizabeth, began a long-range bombardment of Ottoman coastal artillery batteries. The British had intended to use eight aircraft from Ark Royal to spot for the bombardment but harsh conditions rendered all but one of these, a Short Type 136, unserviceable.[30] A period of bad weather slowed the initial phase but by 25 February the outer forts had been reduced and the entrance cleared of mines.[31] After this, Royal Marines were landed to destroy guns at Kum Kale and Seddülbahir, while the naval bombardment shifted to batteries between Kum Kale and Kephez.[32]

Frustrated by the mobility of the Ottoman batteries, which evaded the Allied bombardments and threatened the minesweepers sent to clear the Straits, Churchill began pressuring the naval commander, Admiral Sackville Carden, to increase the fleet's efforts.[33] Carden drew up fresh plans and on 4 March sent a cable to Churchill, stating that the fleet could expect to arrive in Istanbul within 14 days.[34] A sense of impending victory was heightened by the interception of a German wireless message that revealed the Ottoman Dardanelles forts were running out of ammunition.[34] When the message was relayed to Carden, it was agreed the main attack would be launched on or around 17 March. Carden, suffering from stress, was placed on the sick list by the medical officer and command was taken over by Admiral John de Robeck.[35]

18 March 1915

 
Panoramic view of the Allied fleet in the Dardanelles

On the morning of 18 March 1915, the Allied fleet, comprising 18 battleships with an array of cruisers and destroyers, began the main attack against the narrowest point of the Dardanelles, where the straits are 1 mi (1.6 km) wide. Despite some damage to the Allied ships engaging the forts by Ottoman return fire, minesweepers were ordered along the straits. In the Ottoman official account, by 2:00 p.m. "all telephone wires were cut, all communications with the forts were interrupted, some of the guns had been knocked out ... in consequence the artillery fire of the defence had slackened considerably".[36] The French battleship Bouvet struck a mine, causing her to capsize in two minutes, with just 75 survivors out of a total crew of 718.[37] Minesweepers, manned by civilians, retreated under Ottoman artillery fire, leaving the minefields largely intact. HMS Irresistible and HMS Inflexible struck mines and Irresistible was sunk, with most of her surviving crew rescued; Inflexible was badly damaged and withdrawn. There was confusion during the battle about the cause of the damage; some participants blamed torpedoes. HMS Ocean was sent to rescue Irresistible but was disabled from an artillery shell, struck a mine, and was evacuated, eventually sinking.[38]

The French battleships Suffren and Gaulois sailed through a new line of mines placed secretly by the Ottoman minelayer Nusret ten days before, and were also damaged.[39] The losses forced de Robeck to sound the "general recall" to protect what remained of his force.[40] During the planning of the campaign, naval losses had been anticipated and mainly obsolete battleships, unfit to face the German fleet, had been sent. Some of the senior naval officers like the commander of Queen Elizabeth, Commodore Roger Keyes, felt that they had come close to victory, believing that the Ottoman guns had almost run out of ammunition, but the views of de Robeck, the First Sea Lord Jackie Fisher and others prevailed. Allied attempts to force the straits using naval power were terminated, due to the losses and bad weather.[40][35][41] Planning to capture the Turkish defences by land, to open the way for the ships, began. Two Allied submarines tried to traverse the Dardanelles but were lost to mines and the strong currents.[42]

Prelude

Allied landing preparations

 
French troops land at Lemnos, 1915.

After the failure of the naval attacks, troops were assembled to eliminate the Ottoman mobile artillery, which was preventing the Allied minesweepers from clearing the way for the larger vessels. Kitchener appointed General Sir Ian Hamilton to command the 78,000 men of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF).[35][43] Soldiers from the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) and New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) were encamped in Egypt, undergoing training prior to being sent to France.[44] The Australian and New Zealand troops were formed into the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), commanded by Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood, comprising the volunteer 1st Australian Division and the New Zealand and Australian Division. The ANZAC troops were joined by the regular 29th Division and the Royal Naval Division.[29] The French Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient (Orient Expeditionary Corps), initially consisting of two brigades within one division, was subsequently placed under Hamilton's command.[45][46][47][b]

Over the following month, Hamilton prepared his plan and the British and French divisions joined the Australians in Egypt. Hamilton chose to concentrate on the southern part of the Gallipoli peninsula at Cape Helles and Seddülbahir, where an unopposed landing was expected.[49] The Allies initially discounted the fighting ability of the Ottoman soldiers.[50] The naïveté of the Allied planners was illustrated by a leaflet that was issued to the British and Australians while they were still in Egypt,

Turkish soldiers as a rule manifest their desire to surrender by holding their rifle butt upward and by waving clothes or rags of any colour. An actual white flag should be regarded with the utmost suspicion as a Turkish soldier is unlikely to possess anything of that colour.[51]

The underestimation of Ottoman military potential stemmed from a "sense of superiority" among the Allies, because of the decline of the Ottoman Empire and its poor performance in Libya during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912 and the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. Allied intelligence failed to adequately prepare for the campaign, in some cases relying on information gained from Egyptian travel guides.[52][53] The troops for the assault were loaded on transports in the order they were to disembark, causing a long delay which meant that many troops, including the French at Mudros, were forced to detour to Alexandria to embark on the ships that would take them into battle.[54] A five-week delay until the end of April ensued, during which the Ottomans strengthened their defences on the peninsula; although bad weather during March and April might have delayed the landings anyway, preventing supply and reinforcement.[55] Following preparations in Egypt, Hamilton and his headquarters staff arrived at Mudros on 10 April.[56] The ANZAC Corps departed Egypt in early April and assembled on the island of Lemnos in Greece on 12 April, where a small garrison had been established in early March and practice landings were undertaken.[55] The British 29th Division departed for Mudros on 7 April and the Royal Naval Division rehearsed on the island of Skyros, after arriving there on 17 April.[57] That day, the British submarine HMS E15 tried to run the straits but hit a submarine net, ran aground and was shelled by a Turkish fort, killing its commander, Lieutenant Commander Theodore S. Brodie and six of his crew; the survivors were forced to surrender.[58] The Allied fleet and British and French troops assembled at Mudros, ready for the landings but poor weather from 19 March grounded Allied aircraft for nine days and on 24 days only a partial programme of reconnaissance flights were possible.[59][60]

Ottoman defensive preparations

 
Dispositions of the Ottoman 5th Army

The Ottoman force prepared to repel a landing on either side of the Straits was the 5th Army.[61] This force, which initially consisted of five divisions with another en route, was a conscript force, commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders.[29][62][63] Many of the senior officers in the 5th Army were also German.[1] Ottoman commanders and senior German officers debated the best means of defending the peninsula. All agreed that the best defence was to hold the high ground on the ridges of the peninsula. There was disagreement as to where the enemy would land and hence where to concentrate forces. Lieutenant Colonel Mustafa Kemal was familiar with the Gallipoli peninsula from his operations against Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and forecast that Cape Helles (the southern tip of the peninsula) and Gaba Tepe were the likely areas for landing.[64][65]

Mustafa Kemal believed that the British would use their naval power to command the land from every side at the tip of the peninsula; at Gaba Tepe, the short distance to the eastern coast meant that the Allies could easily reach the Narrows (the right-angled bend in the middle of the Dardanelles).[66][67] Sanders considered Besika Bay on the Asiatic coast to be the most vulnerable to invasion, since the terrain was easier to cross and was convenient to attack the most important Ottoman batteries guarding the straits and a third of the 5th Army was assembled there.[68] Two divisions were concentrated at Bulair at the north end of the Gallipoli peninsula, to protect supply and communication lines to the defences further down the peninsula.[69] The 19th Division (Kemal) and the 9th Division were placed along the Aegean coast and at Cape Helles on the tip of the peninsula. Sanders kept the bulk of the Ottoman forces inland in reserve, leaving a minimum of troops guarding the coast.[70] The 3rd Division and a cavalry brigade arrived from Istanbul in early April, bringing the front line strength of the Ottomans to 60,000–62,077 men, which Sanders concentrated in three groups. A maximum effort to improve land and sea communications was ordered, to move reinforcements swiftly to danger points; troops moved at night to avoid Allied air reconnaissance. Sanders' strategy was opposed by Ottoman commanders, including Kemal, who believed that the defenders were too widely dispersed to defeat the invasion on the beaches.[71] Kemal thought Sander's classic strategy was suitable when there was strategic depth to the front, but Gallipoli did not offer that. His commander Esat Passa was not forceful enough in making the objection.[72][73] Sanders was certain that a rigid system of defence would fail and that the only hope of success lay in the mobility of the three groups, particularly the 19th Division near Boghali, in general reserve, ready to move to Bulair, Gaba Tepe or the Asiatic shore.[74]

 
Heavy artillery from the German inland gun emplacement, 1915

The time needed by the British to organise the landings meant that Sanders, Colonel Hans Kannengiesser and other German officers, supported by Esat Pasha (III Corps) had more time to prepare their defences.[29] Sanders later noted, "the British allowed us four good weeks of respite for all this work before their great disembarkation ... This respite just sufficed for the most indispensable measures to be taken".[75] Roads were constructed, small boats built to carry troops and equipment across the Narrows, beaches were wired and improvised mines were constructed from torpedo warheads. Trenches and gun emplacements were dug along the beaches and troops went on route marches to avoid lethargy.[75] Kemal, whose 19th Division was vital to the defensive scheme, observed the beaches and awaited signs of an invasion from his post at Boghali, near Maidos.[76] The Ottomans created Ottoman Aviation Squadrons with German assistance and had four aircraft operating around Çanakkale in February, conducting reconnaissance and army co-operation sorties. From 11 April, an Ottoman aircraft made frequent flights over Mudros, keeping watch on the assembly of the British naval force and an airfield was established near Gallipoli.[59][77][29]

Landings

 
Landing at Gallipoli, April 1915

The Allies planned to land and secure the northern shore, capture the Ottoman forts and artillery batteries for a naval force to advance through the Narrows and the Sea of Marmara towards Istanbul.[78] Scheduled for 23 April but postponed until 25 April due to bad weather, landings were to be made at five beaches on the peninsula.[79] The 29th Division was to land at Helles on the tip of the peninsula and then advance upon the forts at Kilitbahir. The ANZACs, with the 3rd Australian Infantry Brigade spearheading the assault, were to land north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast, from where they could advance across the peninsula, cut off the Ottoman troops in Kilitbahir and stop reinforcements from reaching Cape Helles.[80][81] This sector of the Gallipoli Peninsula became known as ANZAC; the area held by the British and French became known as the Helles sector or Helles. The French made a diversionary landing at Kum Kale on the Asian shore before re-embarking to hold the eastern area of the Helles sector. The Royal Naval Division simulated landing preparations at Bulair and a New Zealand officer, Bernard Freyberg, swam ashore under fire to light flares to distract the defenders from the real landings; Freyberg was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order.[82][83][84]

Arrangements for naval gunfire support to the landings had originally included bombarding the beaches and approaches but was changed to engagement of the ridges during the landings, with the beaches only to be shelled prior to the landings. No decision was ultimately made on the issue of close-support and it was left to the initiative of ships' captains. A reluctance to approach the shore later affected the landings at 'V' and 'W' beach where some of the worst losses among the infantry occurred, while naval gunfire was of some assistance at 'S', 'X' and ANZAC.[85] Even then its effectiveness was limited by the initial confusion ashore, the broken terrain, thick vegetation and the lack of observation.[86] Kitchener had ruled that air requirements must be met by the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) and the Allies employed a small force of seaplanes and other aircraft from 3 Squadron, RNAS (Commander Charles Samson) which arrived at Tenedos at the end of March.[59] The aircraft were unopposed by the small Ottoman air force at first and during the planning, the force had been used to provide aerial reconnaissance, although this ultimately proved inadequate to meet the Allies' intelligence needs and make up for the lack of adequate maps.[87][53] After the landings, Allied aircraft conducted photographic reconnaissance, observed naval gunfire, reported on Ottoman troop movements and conducted a small number of bombing raids.[87]

ANZAC Cove

Allocated the northern landing, Birdwood's force included the 1st Australian Division (Major General William Bridges) and the New Zealand and Australian Division (Major General Sir Alexander Godley), about 25,000 men. The force was to land and advance inland to cut the lines of communication to the Ottoman forces in the south.[88][55] The 1st Australian Division would land first, with the 3rd Infantry Brigade leading as a covering force moving inland to establish positions on Gun Ridge. The 2nd Infantry Brigade was to follow and to capture the higher ground on Sari Bair. The 1st Infantry Brigade would land last as the divisional reserve. The New Zealand and Australian Division was to come ashore and form up to advance across the peninsula. The force was to assemble at night and land at dawn to surprise the defenders and on the evening of 24 April, the covering force embarked on battleships and destroyers, with the follow on forces in on transports. The troops would disembark from the transports into ships' boats and be towed close to the shore by steamboats and then row ashore.[55]

At around 2:00 a.m., an Ottoman observer on a hill at Ariburnu saw a multitude of ships far on the horizon. Captain Faik, in charge of a company from the 27th Infantry Regiment verified it with his binoculars and immediately informed his commanding officer, Ismet Bey, at Kabatepe. By 3:00 a.m., the moon was covered and the ships were no longer visible to the Ottomans.[89] The Ottomans were not sure if this was a real landing or a diversion. Once the intense artillery was heard, at around 6:00 a.m. the two remaining battalions of the 27th Infantry Regiment were ordered to make their way to Ariburnu urgently.[90] Sanders had left his HQ and was at Bulair, distracted by the few Allied ships that had appeared; he had been confident that this was where the landings would take place. For two days, he remained at Bulair with the 5th Division waiting for the real landing. His absence created problems in chain of command and delays in decision making which negated his defence scheme that relied on rapid movement of troops.[91]

 
Landing of the covering force from battleships (red) and destroyers (orange) at Anzac Cove, 25 April 1915

At 4:00 a.m. on the morning of 25 April the first wave of troops from the 3rd Brigade began moving towards the shore on lighters and ships' boats. The covering force landed approximately 1.2 mi (2 km) too far north, in a bay just south of Ari Burnu, due to undetected currents or a navigational error.[88][55] The landing was more difficult, over ground which rose steeply from the beaches, unlike the objective to the south, which was more open. The landing site was garrisoned by only two Ottoman companies but from positions on commanding ground the Ottomans inflicted numerous casualties on the Australians before being overcome.[92] The broken terrain prevented a coordinated drive inland, with the Australians on unfamiliar ground and with inaccurate maps. In the maze of steep ravines, spurs and dense scrub, Australian parties that got forward quickly lost contact and were broken up into small groups. Some Australian troops reached the second ridge but fewer still reached their objectives and having become dispersed, the covering force could provide little support to the follow-up force.[93]

 
The landing of Australian troops at ANZAC Cove, Gallipoli, Turkey, 25 April 1915

The 1st and 2nd Brigades, then the New Zealand and Australian Division, landed on the beaches around Ari Burnu but became entangled, which took time to sort out.[94] About four hours after the landings began, the bulk of the 1st Australian Division was ashore safely and its leading elements were pushing inland. By mid-morning Kemal had reorganised the defenders for a counter-attack on the commanding heights of Chunuk Bair and Sari Bair.[88] The right flank of the small lodgement taken by the Australians was driven in at 10:30 a.m., with most of 400 Plateau being lost. During the afternoon and evening the left flank was pushed back from Baby 700 and the Nek. By evening, Bridges and Godley recommended re-embarkation; Birdwood agreed but after advice from the navy that re-embarkation was impossible, Hamilton ordered the troops dig-in instead. The Ottoman counter-attack was eventually repulsed and the Australians established a perimeter roughly from Walker's Ridge in the north to Shell Green in the south.[94][88] ANZAC casualties on the first day numbered around 2,000 men killed or wounded.[94] The failure to secure the high ground led to a tactical stalemate, with the landings contained by the defenders in a perimeter less than 1.2 mi (2 km) long.[88]

The Australian submarine HMAS AE2 (Lieutenant Commander Henry Stoker) penetrated the Straits on the night of 24/25 April. As landings began at Cape Helles and ANZAC Cove at dawn on 25 April, AE2 reached Chanak by 6:00 a.m. and torpedoed a Turkish gunboat believed to be a Peyk-i Şevket-class cruiser then evaded a destroyer.[95][96] The submarine ran aground beneath a Turkish fort but the Ottoman gunners could not bring their guns to bear and AE2 was manoeuvred free.[95] Shortly after refloating, the periscope was sighted by a Turkish battleship firing over the peninsula at Allied landing sites and the ship ceased fire and withdrew.[95] AE2 advanced toward the Sea of Marmara and at 08:30 Stoker decided to rest the boat on the seabed until nightfall.[95] At around 9:00 p.m., AE2 surfaced to recharge batteries and sent a wireless report to the fleet.[95][97] The landing at Cape Helles was going well but the landing at Anzac Cove was not as successful and the Anzac commander, Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood, contemplated the re-embarkation of his troops.[95] The success of AE2 was a consideration in Birdwood deciding to persist and reports about AE2 were relayed to the soldiers ashore to improve morale.[95] Stoker was ordered to "generally run amok" and with no enemies in sight, he sailed into the Sea of Marmara, where AE2 cruised for five days to give the impression of greater numbers and made several attacks against Ottoman ships, which failed because of mechanical problems with the torpedoes.[98]

Cape Helles

 
Troops of the 29th Indian Brigade landing at Cape Helles

The Helles landing was made by the 29th Division (Major General Aylmer Hunter-Weston). The division landed on five beaches in an arc about the tip of the peninsula, named 'S', 'V', 'W', 'X' and 'Y' Beaches from east to west.[99] On 1 May, the 29th Indian Brigade (including 1/6th Gurkha Rifles) landed, took and secured Sari Bair above the landing beaches and was joined by 1/5th Gurkha Rifles and 2/10th Gurkha Rifles; the Zion Mule Corps landed at Helles on 27 April.[100] At 'Y' Beach, during the first engagement, the First Battle of Krithia, the Allies landed unopposed and advanced inland.[101] There were only a small number of defenders in the village but lacking orders to exploit the position, the 'Y' Beach commander withdrew his force to the beach. It was as close as the Allies ever came to capturing the village as the Ottomans brought up a battalion of the 25th Regiment, checking any further movement.[102]

 
Cape Helles landing beaches

The main landings were made at 'V' Beach, beneath the old Seddülbahir fortress and at 'W' Beach, a short distance to the west on the other side of the Helles headland. The covering force of Royal Munster Fusiliers and Hampshires landed from a converted collier, SS River Clyde, which was run aground beneath the fortress so that the troops could disembark along ramps. The Royal Dublin Fusiliers landed at 'V' Beach and the Lancashire Fusiliers at 'W' Beach in open boats, on a shore overlooked by dunes and obstructed with barbed wire. On both beaches the Ottoman defenders occupied good defensive positions and inflicted many casualties on the British infantry as they landed. Troops emerging one by one from sally ports on River Clyde were shot by machine-gunners at the Seddülbahir fort and of the first 200 soldiers to disembark, 21 men reached the beach.[103]

The Ottoman defenders were too few to defeat the landing but inflicted many casualties and contained the attack close to the shore. By the morning of 25 April, out of ammunition and with nothing but bayonets to meet the attackers on the slopes leading up from the beach to the heights of Chunuk Bair, the 57th Infantry Regiment received orders from Kemal "I do not order you to fight, I order you to die. In the time which passes until we die, other troops and commanders can come forward and take our places". Every man of the regiment was either killed or wounded.[104][c]

At 'W' Beach, thereafter known as Lancashire Landing, the Lancashires were able to overwhelm the defenders despite the loss of 600 casualties from 1,000 men. Six awards of the Victoria Cross were made among the Lancashires at 'W' Beach. A further six Victoria Crosses were awarded among the infantry and sailors at the 'V' Beach landing and three more were awarded the following day as they fought their way inland. Five squads of Ottoman infantry led by Sergeant Yahya distinguished themselves by repulsing several attacks on their hilltop position, the defenders eventually disengaging under cover of darkness.[105] After the landings, so few men remained from the Dublin and Munster Fusiliers that they were amalgamated into The Dubsters.[106] Only one Dubliner officer survived the landing, while of the 1,012 Dubliners who landed, just 11 survived the Gallipoli campaign unscathed.[107][108] After the landings, little was done by the Allies to exploit the situation, apart from a few limited advances inland by small groups of men. The Allied attack lost momentum and the Ottomans had time to bring up reinforcements and rally the small number of defending troops.[109]

Land campaign

Early battles

 

On the afternoon of 27 April, the 19th Division, reinforced by six battalions from the 5th Division, counter-attacked the six Allied brigades at Anzac.[110] With the support of naval gunfire, the Allies held back the Ottomans throughout the night. The following day the British were joined by French troops transferred from Kum Kale on the Asiatic shore to the right of the line near 'S' Beach at Morto Bay. On 28 April, the Allies fought the First Battle of Krithia to capture the village.[111] Hunter-Weston made a plan which proved overly complex and was poorly communicated to the commanders in the field. The troops of the 29th Division were still exhausted and unnerved by the battles for the beaches and for Seddülbahir village, which was captured after much fighting on 26 April. The Ottoman defenders stopped the Allied advance halfway between the Helles headland and Krithia around 6:00 p.m., having inflicted 3,000 casualties.[112]

As Ottoman reinforcements arrived, the possibility of a swift Allied victory on the peninsula disappeared and the fighting at Helles and Anzac became a battle of attrition. On 30 April, the Royal Naval Division (Major General Archibald Paris) landed. The same day, Kemal, believing that the Allies were on the verge of defeat, began moving troops forward through Wire Gulley, near the 400 Plateau and Lone Pine. Eight battalions of reinforcements were dispatched from Istanbul a day later and that afternoon, Ottoman troops counter-attacked at Helles and Anzac. The Ottomans briefly broke through in the French sector but the attacks were repulsed by massed Allied machine-gun fire, which inflicted many casualties on the attackers.[113] The following night, Birdwood ordered the New Zealand and Australian Division to attack from Russell's Top and Quinn's Post towards Baby 700. The Australian 4th Infantry Brigade (Colonel John Monash), the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and Royal Marines from the Chatham Battalion took part in the attack. Covered by a naval and artillery barrage, the troops advanced a short distance during the night but got separated in the dark. The attackers came under massed small-arms fire from their exposed left flank and were repulsed, having suffered about 1,000 casualties.[114]

 
HMAS AE2

On 30 April, the submarine AE2 began to rise uncontrollably and surfaced near the Ottoman torpedo boat Sultanhisar, then dropped precipitously below the safe diving depth, then broke the surface again at the stern.[98] Sultanhisar immediately fired on the submarine, puncturing the pressure hull. Stoker ordered the company to abandon ship, scuttled the submarine and the crew was taken prisoner. AE2's achievements showed that it was possible to force the Straits and soon Ottoman communications were badly disrupted by British and French submarine operations.[98] On 27 April, HMS E14 (Lieutenant Commander Edward Boyle), entered the Sea of Marmara on a three-week patrol, which became one of the most successful Allied naval actions of the campaign, in which four ships were sunk, including the transport Gul Djemal which was carrying 6,000 troops and a field battery to Gallipoli. While the quantity and value of the shipping sunk was minor, the effect on Ottoman communications and morale was significant; Boyle was awarded the Victoria Cross.[115][116] Following the success of AE2 and E14, the French submarine Joule attempted the passage on 1 May but struck a mine and was lost with all hands.[117] (Several weeks earlier another French boat, Saphir, had been lost after running aground near Nagara Point.)[118]

Operations: May 1915

On 5 May, the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division was dispatched from Egypt.[119] Believing Anzac to be secure, Hamilton moved the Australian 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, along with 20 Australian field guns, to the Helles front as reserves for the Second Battle of Krithia.[120] Involving a force of 20,000 men, it was the first general attack at Helles and was planned for daylight. French troops were to capture Kereves Dere and the British, Australians and New Zealanders were assigned Krithia and Achi Baba. After 30 minutes of artillery preparation, the assault began at mid-morning on 6 May.[121] The British and French advanced along the Gully, Fir Tree, Krithia and Kereves spurs which were separated by deep gullies, fortified by the Ottomans. As the attackers advanced, they became separated when trying to outflank Ottoman strong points and found themselves in unfamiliar terrain. Under artillery and then machine-gun fire from Ottoman outposts that had not been spotted by British aerial reconnaissance, the attack was stopped; next day, reinforcements resumed the advance.[122]

 
Ottoman machine-gun teams equipped with MG 08s

The attack continued on 7 May and four battalions of New Zealanders attacked up Krithia Spur on 8 May; with the 29th Division the attackers managed to reach a position just south of the village. Late in the afternoon, the Australian 2nd Brigade advanced quickly over open ground to the British front line. Amidst small arms and artillery-fire, the brigade charged towards Krithia and gained 600 m (660 yd), about 400 m (440 yd) short of the objective, with 1,000 casualties. Near Fir Tree Spur, the New Zealanders managed to get forward and link up with the Australians, although the British were held up and the French were exhausted, despite having occupied a point overlooking their objective. The attack was suspended and the Allies dug in, having failed to take Krithia or Achi Baba.[122]

A brief period of consolidation followed; the Allies had almost run out of ammunition, particularly for the artillery and both sides consolidated their defences.[123] The Ottomans relieved troops opposite the Australian line, which was reinforced by the Australian Light Horse operating as infantry.[124] Sporadic fighting continued, with sniping, grenade attacks and raids, the opposing trenches separated in places by only a few metres.[125][124] The Australians lost a number of officers to sniping, including the commander of the 1st Division, Major General William Bridges, who was wounded while inspecting a 1st Light Horse Regiment position near "Steele's Post" and died of his injuries on the hospital ship HMHS Gascon on 18 May.[126]

At the end of April Birdwood told GHQ MEF (General Headquarters Mediterranean Expeditionary Force) that he could not land 6,000 horses at Anzac Cove as there was no water for them. GHQ MEF was unhappy that the ANZAC force would be immobilised on the beachhead, but they would have been no use. Some of the thousands of men and horses remained on board ship for up to a month. Birdwood signalled on 17 May that 17 transports would be returning to Alexandria to offload 5,251 horses accompanied by 3,217 men. GHQ MEF insisted that some of the men remain in Alexandria to look after the horses and guard ANZACs "many vehicles and mountains of baggage".[127]

Ottoman counter-offensive: 19 May

On 19 May, 42,000 Ottoman troops launched an attack at Anzac to push the 17,000 Australians and New Zealanders back into the sea.[87][128] Short of artillery and ammunition, the Ottomans intended to rely on surprise and weight of numbers but on 18 May, the crews of a flight of British aircraft spotted the Ottoman preparations.[87][128] The Ottomans suffered c. 13,000 casualties in the attack, of which 3,000 men were killed; Australian and New Zealand casualties were 160 killed and 468 wounded.[128][129][130] The dead included a stretcher bearer, John Simpson Kirkpatrick, whose efforts to evacuate wounded men on a donkey while under fire became famous amongst the Australians at Anzac; afterwards, his story becoming part of the Australian narrative of the campaign.[131] Ottoman losses were so severe that a truce was organised by Aubrey Herbert and others on 24 May, to bury the dead lying in no man's land, which led to a camaraderie between the armies, much like the Christmas truce of 1914 on the Western Front.[132]

 
Field Ambulance stretchers a wounded soldier down a path.

A witness account from Private Victor Laidlaw of the Australian 2nd Field Ambulance described the day,

The armistice was declared from 8:30 a.m. this morning till 4:30 p.m. it is wonderful, things are unnaturally quiet and I felt like getting up and making a row myself, the rifle fire is quiet, no shell fire. The stench round the trenches where the dead had been lying for weeks was awful, some of the bodies were mere skeletons, it seems so very different to see each side near each other's trenches burying their dead, each man taking part in this ceremony is called a pioneer and wears 2 white bands on his arms, everybody is taking advantage of the armistice to do anything they want to do out of cover and a large number are down bathing and you would think today was Cup Day down at one of our seaside beaches.[133]

The truce was not repeated formally.[132]

 
Esat Pasha delivering orders to the batteries at Anzac Cove

The British advantage in naval artillery diminished after the battleship HMS Goliath was torpedoed and sunk on 13 May by the Ottoman destroyer Muâvenet-i Millîye, killing 570 men out of a crew of 750, including the ship's commander, Captain Thomas Shelford.[134] A German submarine, U-21, sank HMS Triumph on 25 May and HMS Majestic on 27 May.[135] More British reconnaissance patrols were flown around Gallipoli and U-21 was forced to leave the area but ignorant of this, the Allies withdrew most of their warships to Imbros, where they were "protectively tethered" between sorties, which greatly reduced Allied naval firepower, particularly in the Helles sector.[136] The submarine HMS E11 (Lieutenant Commander Martin Nasmith, later awarded a Victoria Cross) passed through the Dardanelles on 18 May and sank or disabled eleven ships, including three on 23 May, before entering Constantinople Harbour, firing on a transport alongside the arsenal, sinking a gunboat and damaging the wharf.[137][138][139]

The Ottoman forces lacked artillery ammunition and field batteries were only able to fire c. 18,000 shells between early May and the first week of June.[140] After the defeat of the counter-attack at Anzac in mid-May, the Ottoman forces ceased frontal assaults. Late in the month, the Ottomans began tunneling around Quinn's Post in the Anzac sector and early in the morning of 29 May, despite Australian counter-mining, detonated a mine and attacked with a battalion from the 14th Regiment. The Australian 15th Battalion was forced back but counter-attacked and recaptured the ground later in the day, before being relieved by New Zealand troops. Operations at Anzac in early June returned to consolidation, minor engagements and skirmishing with grenades and sniper-fire.[141]

Operations: June–July 1915

 
Troops of the 29th Indian Brigade in trenches at Gallipoli, 1915

In the Helles sector, which had been extensively entrenched by both sides, the Allies attacked Krithia and Achi Baba again, in the Third Battle of Krithia on 4 June, with the 29th Division, Royal Naval Division, 42nd Division and two French divisions.[142] The attack was repulsed and with it, the possibility of a decisive breakthrough ended; trench warfare resumed, with objectives being measured in hundreds of yards. Casualties were approximately 25 percent on both sides; the British lost 4,500 from 20,000 men and the French 2,000 casualties from 10,000 troops. Ottoman losses were 9,000 casualties according to the Turkish Official History and 10,000 according to another account.[143]

 
French gunners with a 75 mm gun near Seddülbahir, 1915

In June, the seaplane carrier HMS Ben-my-Chree arrived and the Allied air effort increased from a squadron to No. 3 Wing RNAS.[144] The 52nd (Lowland) Division also landed at Helles in preparation for the Battle of Gully Ravine, which began on 28 June and achieved a local success, which advanced the British line along the left (Aegean) flank of the battlefield. Sanders credited the defence to two Ottoman officers, Faik Pasa and Albay Refet.[140] On 30 June, the French commander, Henri Gouraud who had earlier replaced Albert d'Amade, was wounded and replaced by his divisional commander, Maurice Bailloud.[145] Between 1 and 5 July, the Ottomans counter-attacked the new British line several times but failed to regain the lost ground. Ottoman casualties for the period were estimated at 14,000 men.[146] On 12 July, two fresh brigades from the 52nd Division attacked at the centre of the line along Achi Baba Nullah (Bloody Valley), gained very little ground and lost 2,500 casualties out of 7,500 men; the Royal Naval Division had 600 casualties and French losses were 800 men. Ottoman losses were about 9,000 casualties and 600 prisoners.[147]

At sea, the submarine E14 made two voyages into the Marmara.[137] The third tour began on 21 July, when E14 passed through the straits despite a new anti-submarine net placed near the Narrows.[148] The next attempt was made by Mariotte on 27 July, which was caught in the net, forced to the surface and bombarded by shore batteries; Mariotte was scuttled.[149] On 8 August, E11 torpedoed the battleship Barbaros Hayreddin with the loss of 253 men and sank a gunboat, seven transports and 23 sailing vessels.[150][151][152]

August offensive

 
Australian light horseman using a periscope rifle

The failure of the Allies to capture Krithia or make any progress on the Helles front led Hamilton to form a new plan to secure the Sari Bair Range of hills at the Battle of Sari Bair and capture high ground on Hill 971 in the Battle of Chunuk Bair.[153] Both sides had been reinforced, the original five Allied divisions having been increased to fifteen and first six Ottoman divisions to sixteen.[154][155] The Allies planned to land two fresh infantry divisions from IX Corps at Suvla, 5 mi (8.0 km) north of Anzac, followed by an advance on Sari Bair from the north-west.[156][157] At Anzac, an offensive would be made against the Sari Bair range by advancing through rough and thinly defended terrain, north of the Anzac perimeter. This would be achieved by an attack on Baby 700 from the Nek by dismounted Australian light horsemen from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, in concert with an attack on Chunuk Bair summit by New Zealanders from the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, who would traverse Rhododendron Ridge, the Apex and the Farm. Hill 971 would be attacked by Gurkhas of the 29th Indian Brigade and the Australians of the 4th Infantry Brigade.[157] The Allies had 40 aircraft, mainly from 3 Wing RNAS at Imbros, which had replaced its Voisins with Farmans and Nieuport Xs; Escadrille MF98T had also been established at Tenedos.[158] The Ottomans had 20 aircraft, of which eight were stationed at Çanakkale. Allied aircraft made reconnaissance flights, spotted for naval guns and conducted low-level bombing of Ottoman reserves as they were brought up to the battlefield.[144] Allied aircraft also undertook anti-shipping operations in the Gulf of Saros, where a seaplane from HMS Ben-my-Chree sank an Ottoman tug with an air-launched torpedo.[159]

 
Gurkha Rifles of the 29th Indian Brigade in bivouacs, Gallipoli, 1915

The landing at Suvla Bay took place on the night of 6 August against light opposition; the British commander, Lieutenant General Frederick Stopford, had limited his early objectives and then failed to forcefully push his demands for an advance inland and little more than the beach was seized. The Ottomans were able to occupy the Anafarta Hills, preventing the British from penetrating inland, which contained the landings and reduced the Suvla front to static trench warfare.[160] The offensive was preceded on the evening of 6 August by diversions, at Helles, where the Battle of Krithia Vineyard became another costly stalemate. At Anzac, the diversionary Battle of Lone Pine, led by the Australian 1st Infantry Brigade, captured the main Ottoman trench line and diverted Ottoman forces but the attacks at Chunuk Bair and Hill 971 failed.[80][161][162]

 
Captain Leslie Morshead in a trench at Lone Pine after the battle, looking at Australian and Ottoman dead on the parapet

The New Zealand Infantry Brigade came within 500 m (550 yd) of the near peak of Chunuk Bair by dawn on 7 August but was not able to seize the summit until the following morning.[163] On the morning of 7 August, the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade attacked on a narrow front at the Nek, to coincide with the New Zealand attack from Chunuk Bair against the rear of the Ottoman defences. The opening artillery barrage lifted seven minutes too soon, which alerted the Ottomans and the attack was a costly failure.[164] An attack on Hill 971 never took place after the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade and an Indian brigade lost direction during the night. Attempts to resume the attack were easily repulsed by the Ottoman defenders, at great cost to the Allies.[165] The New Zealanders held out on Chunuk Bair for two days before being relieved by two New Army battalions from the Wiltshire and Loyal North Lancashire Regiments but an Ottoman counterattack on 10 August, led by Mustafa Kemal, swept them from the heights.[163] Of 760 men in the New Zealand Wellington Battalion who reached the summit, 711 became casualties.[166] With the Ottoman recapture of the ground, the Allies' best chance of victory was lost.[165]

The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the 10th (Irish) Division on 7 August, the 53rd (Welsh) Division, which began landing on 8 August, the 54th (East Anglian) Division arriving late on 10 August and the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division on 18 August.[167] On 12 August, the 54th Division attacked Kavak Tepe and Tekke Tepe, crossing the Anafarta Plain. The attack failed and Hamilton briefly considered the evacuation of Suvla and Anzac.[168][d]

 
Australian troops charging an Ottoman trench, just before the evacuation at Anzac

Elements of the new Australian 2nd Division began arriving at Anzac from Egypt with the 5th Infantry Brigade landing from 19–20 August and the 6th Brigade and 7th Brigade arriving in early September.[169][170] The 29th Division was also shifted from Helles to Suvla. The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August, in the Battle of Scimitar Hill and the Battle of Hill 60. Control of the hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts but the attacks failed. On 17 August, Hamilton had requested another 95,000 troops but a day earlier, the French had announced plans to Kitchener for an autumn offensive in France. A meeting of the Dardanelles Committee on 20 August determined that the French offensive would be supported by a maximum effort, which left only about 25,000 reinforcements for the Dardanelles. On 23 August, after news of the failure at Scimitar Hill, Hamilton went onto the defensive as Bulgarian entry into the war, which would allow the Germans to rearm the Turkish army, was imminent and left little opportunity for the resumption of offensive operations. On 20 September 1915, the Newfoundland Regiment was deployed at Suvla Bay with the 29th Division.[171] On 25 September, Kitchener proposed detaching two British and one French division for service in Salonika in Greece, which was the beginning of the end of the Allied campaign at Gallipoli. Instead, a counter proposal from Sir Ian Hamilton was agreed to; only the 10th (Irish) Division and the 156th Infantry Division (France) were withdrawn from the peninsula. By the end of September these troops were concentrating at Mudros for conveyance to the new front.[172]

Alan Moorehead wrote that during the stalemate, an old Ottoman batman was regularly permitted to hang his platoon's washing on the barbed wire undisturbed and that there was a "constant traffic" of gifts being thrown across no-man's land, dates and sweets from the Ottoman side and cans of beef and packs of cigarettes from the Allied side.[173] Conditions at Gallipoli grew worse for everyone as summer heat and poor sanitation resulted in an explosion in the fly population. Eating became extremely difficult as unburied corpses became bloated and putrid. The precarious Allied lodgements were poorly situated, which caused supply and shelter problems. A dysentery epidemic spread through the Allied trenches at Anzac and Helles, while the Ottomans also suffered heavily from disease which resulted in many deaths.[174]

Evacuation

After the failure of the August Offensive, the Gallipoli campaign drifted. Ottoman success began to affect public opinion in Britain, with criticism of Hamilton's performance being smuggled out by Keith Murdoch, Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett and other reporters.[175] Stopford and other dissident officers also contributed to the air of gloom and the possibility of evacuation was raised on 11 October 1915. Hamilton resisted the suggestion, fearing the damage to British prestige but was sacked shortly afterwards and replaced by Lieutenant General Sir Charles Monro.[176] Autumn and winter brought relief from the heat but also led to gales, blizzards and flooding, resulting in men drowning and freezing to death, while thousands suffered frostbite.[177] The Serbian defeat in the Serbian campaign in autumn 1915 prompted France and Britain to transfer troops from the Gallipoli campaign to Greek Macedonia; the Macedonian front was established to support the remnants of the Serbian army to conquer Vardar Macedonia.[178]

 
Troops from the Royal Irish Fusiliers serving in Gallipoli in Autumn 1915

On 4 September, the submarine HMS E7 was caught in the Ottoman anti-submarine net as it began another tour.[179] Despite such reverses, by mid-September, Allied nets and mines had closed the eastern entrance to the Dardanelles to German U-boats and U-21 was thwarted when it tried to pass the straits to Istanbul on 13 September.[180] The first French submarine to enter the Sea of Marmara was Turquoise but it was forced to turn back; on 30 October, when returning through the straits, it ran aground beneath a fort and was captured intact. The crew of 25 were taken prisoner and documents detailing planned Allied operations were discovered, including a scheduled rendezvous with HMS E20 on 6 November. The rendezvous was kept by the German U-boat U-14 instead, which torpedoed and sank E20, killing all but nine of the crew.[181]

The situation at Gallipoli was complicated by Bulgaria joining the Central Powers. In early October 1915, the British and French opened a second Mediterranean front at Salonika, by moving two divisions from Gallipoli and reducing the flow of reinforcements.[182] A land route between Germany and the Ottoman Empire through Bulgaria was opened and the Germans rearmed the Ottomans with heavy artillery capable of devastating Allied trenches, especially on the confined front at Anzac, modern aircraft and experienced crews.[183][184] In late November, an Ottoman crew in a German Albatros C.I shot down a French aircraft over Gaba Tepe and the Austro-Hungarian 36. Haubitzbatterie and 9. Motormörserbatterie artillery units arrived, providing a substantial reinforcement of the Ottoman artillery.[184][3][185] Monro recommended evacuation to Kitchener, who in early November visited the eastern Mediterranean.[175] After consulting with the commanders of VIII Corps at Helles, IX Corps at Suvla and Anzac, Kitchener agreed with Monro and passed his recommendation to the British Cabinet, who confirmed the decision to evacuate in early December.[186]

Due to the narrowness of no man's land and the winter weather, many casualties were anticipated during the embarkation. The untenable nature of the Allied position was made apparent by a rainstorm on 26 November 1915. The downpour at Suvla lasted for three days and there was a blizzard in early December. Rain flooded trenches, drowned soldiers and washed unburied corpses into the lines; the following snow killed still more men from exposure.[187] Suvla and Anzac were to be evacuated in late December, the last troops leaving before dawn on 20 December. Troop numbers had been slowly reduced since 7 December and ruses, such as William Scurry's self-firing rifle, which had been rigged to fire by water dripped into a pan attached to the trigger, were used to disguise the Allied departure.[188] At Anzac Cove, troops maintained silence for an hour or more, until curious Ottoman troops ventured to inspect the trenches, whereupon the Anzacs opened fire. This incident successfully discouraged the Ottomans from inspecting when the actual evacuation occurred. A mine was detonated at the Nek, which killed 70 Ottoman soldiers.[189] The Allied force was embarked, with the Australians suffering no casualties on the final night but large quantities of supplies and stores fell into Ottoman hands.[190][191][192]

 
W Beach, Helles, on 7 January 1916, just prior to the final evacuation

Helles was retained for a period but a decision to evacuate the garrison was made on 28 December.[193] Unlike the evacuation from Anzac Cove, Ottoman forces were looking for signs of withdrawal.[191] Having used the interval to bring up reinforcements and supplies, Sanders mounted an attack on the British at Gully Spur on 7 January 1916 with infantry and artillery but the attack was a costly failure.[194] Mines were laid with time fuzes and that night and on the night of 7/8 January, under the cover of a naval bombardment, the British troops began to fall back 5 mi (8.0 km) from their lines to the beaches, where makeshift piers were used to board boats.[191][195] The last British troops departed from Lancashire Landing around 04:00 on 8 January 1916.[194] The Newfoundland Regiment was part of the rearguard and withdrew on 9 January 1916.[196] Among the first to land, remnants of The Plymouth Battalion, Royal Marine Light Infantry were the last to leave the Peninsula.[197]

Despite predictions of up to 30,000 casualties, 35,268 troops, 3,689 horses and mules, 127 guns, 328 vehicles and 1,600 long tons (1,600 t) of equipment were removed;[195] 508 mules that could not be embarked were killed so as not to fall into Ottoman hands and 1,590 vehicles were left behind with smashed wheels.[198] As at Anzac, large amounts of supplies (including 15 British and six French unserviceable artillery pieces which were destroyed), gun carriages and ammunition were left behind; hundreds of horses were slaughtered to deny them to the Ottomans. A sailor was killed by debris from a magazine that exploded prematurely and a lighter and a picket boat were lost.[199] Shortly after dawn, the Ottomans retook Helles.[194] In the final days of the campaign, Ottoman air defences had been increased by a German–Ottoman fighter squadron, which began operations over the peninsula and inflicted the first British flying losses a couple of days after the evacuation of Helles, when three Fokker Eindeckers shot down two RNAS aircraft.[184]

Aftermath

Military repercussions

 
Respect to Mehmetçik Monument (Anzac soldier injured in the arms of Turkish troops)

Historians are divided about how they summarise the campaign's result. Broadbent describes the campaign as "a close-fought affair" that was a defeat for the Allies,[200] while Carlyon views the overall result as a stalemate.[201] Peter Hart disagrees, arguing that the Ottoman forces "held the Allies back from their real objectives with relative ease",[191] while Haythornthwaite calls it a "disaster for the Allies".[202] The campaign did cause "enormous damage to ... [Ottoman] national resources",[202] and at that stage of the war the Allies were in a better position to replace their losses than the Ottomans,[190] but ultimately the Allied attempt at securing a passage through the Dardanelles proved unsuccessful. While it diverted Ottoman forces away from other areas of conflict in the Middle East, the campaign also consumed resources the Allies could have employed on the Western Front,[203] and also resulted in heavy losses on the Allied side.[202]

The Allied campaign was plagued by ill-defined goals, poor planning, insufficient artillery, inexperienced troops, inaccurate maps, poor intelligence, overconfidence, inadequate equipment, and logistical and tactical deficiencies at all levels.[204][205] Geography also proved a significant factor. While the Allied forces possessed inaccurate maps and intelligence and proved unable to exploit the terrain to their advantage, the Ottoman commanders were able to utilise the high ground around the Allied landing beaches to position well-sited defences that limited the ability of Allied forces to penetrate inland, confining them to narrow beaches.[53] The campaign's necessity remains the subject of debate,[80] and the recriminations that followed were significant, highlighting the schism that had developed between military strategists who felt the Allies should focus on fighting on the Western Front and those who favoured trying to end the war by attacking Germany's "soft underbelly", its allies in the east.[206]

British and French submarine operations in the Sea of Marmara were the one significant area of success of the Gallipoli campaign, forcing the Ottomans to abandon the sea as a transport route. Between April and December 1915, nine British and four French submarines carried out 15 patrols, sinking one battleship, one destroyer, five gunboats, 11 troop transports, 44 supply ships and 148 sailing vessels at a cost of eight Allied submarines sunk in the strait or in the Sea of Marmara.[207] During the campaign there was always one British submarine in the Sea of Marmara, sometimes two; in October 1915, there were four Allied submarines in the region.[118] E2 left the Sea of Marmara on 2 January 1916, the last British submarine in the region. Four E-class and five B-class submarines remained in the Mediterranean Sea following the evacuation of Helles.[208] By this time the Ottoman navy had been all but forced to cease operations in the area, while merchant shipping had also been significantly curtailed. The official German naval historian, Admiral Eberhard von Mantey, later concluded that had the sea-lanes of communication been completely severed the Ottoman 5th Army would likely have faced catastrophe. As it was these operations were a source of significant anxiety, posing a constant threat to shipping and causing heavy losses, effectively dislocating Ottoman attempts to reinforce their forces at Gallipoli and shelling troop concentrations and railways.[209]

Gallipoli marked the end for Hamilton and Stopford, but Hunter-Weston went on to lead VIII Corps on the first day of the Battle of the Somme.[210][211] The competence of Australian brigade commanders, John Monash (4th Infantry Brigade) and Harry Chauvel (1st Light Horse Brigade, New Zealand and Australian Division), was recognised by promotion to divisional and corps command.[212][213] The influence of Kitchener waned after the coalition government was formed in May 1915, partly because of the growing sense of failure in the Dardanelles and culminated in Kitchener being over-ruled on support for the French at Salonika in early December 1915, when his influence on the Cabinet was at its lowest.[214] The campaign gave confidence to the Ottomans in their ability to defeat the Allies.[205] In Mesopotamia, the Turks surrounded a British expedition at Kut Al Amara, forcing their surrender in April 1916.[215] Ottoman forces in southern Palestine were poised to launch an attack against the Suez Canal and Egypt.[216] Defeat at the Battle of Romani and lack of the materials to complete the military railway necessary for such an operation, marked the end of that ambition.[217] The optimism gained from the victory at Gallipoli was replaced by a gathering sense of despair and the British remained on the offensive in the Middle East for the rest of the war.[218][219]

 
The Sphinx, one of the battlefield's most distinctive physical landmarks

The lessons of the campaign were studied by military planners prior to amphibious operations such as the Normandy Landings in 1944 and during the Falklands War in 1982.[220][48] The lessons of the campaign influenced US Marine Corps amphibious operations during the Pacific War and continue to influence US amphibious doctrine.[220][221] In 1996, Theodore Gatchel wrote that between the wars, the campaign "became a focal point for the study of amphibious warfare" in Britain and United States.[221] In 2008, Glenn Wahlert wrote that Gallipoli involved "all four types of amphibious operations: the raid, demonstration, assault and withdrawal".[220]

Russell Weigley wrote that analysis of the campaign before the Second World War led to "a belief among most of the armed forces of the world" that amphibious assaults could not succeed against modern defences and that despite landings in Italy, Tarawa and the Gilberts, arguably this perception continued until Normandy in June 1944.[222] Hart wrote that despite the pessimistic analyses after 1918, the situation after 1940 meant that landings from the sea were unavoidable and it was only after Normandy that the belief that opposed landings were futile was overcome.[223] The memory of Gallipoli weighed upon the Australians during the planning of the Huon Peninsula campaign in late 1943. In September, the Australians made their first opposed amphibious landing since Gallipoli at the Battle of Finschhafen in New Guinea.[224] The landing was hampered by navigational errors and troops came ashore on the wrong beaches but they had been trained according to the lessons of Gallipoli and quickly reorganised to push inland.[225]

Political effects

Political repercussions in Britain had begun during the battle, Fisher resigned in May after bitter conflict with Churchill. The crisis that followed after the Conservatives learned that Churchill would be staying, forced the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith to end his Liberal Government and form a Coalition Government with the Conservative Party.[226] The Asquith government responded to the disappointment and outrage over Gallipoli and Kut by establishing commissions of inquiry into both episodes, which had done much to "destroy its faltering reputation for competence".[227] The Dardanelles Commission was set up to investigate the failure of the expedition, the first report being issued in 1917, with the final report published in 1919.[1] Following the failure of the Dardanelles expedition, Sir Ian Hamilton, commander of the MEF, was recalled to London in October 1915, ending his military career.[228] Churchill was demoted from First Lord of the Admiralty as a condition of Conservative entry to the coalition but remained in the Cabinet in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.[229] Churchill resigned in November 1915 and left London for the Western Front, where he commanded an infantry battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers early in 1916.[229][230]

Asquith was partly blamed for Gallipoli and other disasters and was overthrown in December 1916, when David Lloyd George proposed a war council under his authority, with the Conservatives in the coalition threatening to resign unless the plan was implemented. After failure to reach agreement, Lloyd George and then Asquith resigned, followed by Lloyd George becoming Prime Minister.[231] Lloyd George formed a new government, from which Churchill, active again in the House of Commons from June 1916, was excluded because of Conservative opposition. In the summer of 1917, Churchill was eventually appointed to the cabinet-level post of Minister of Munitions but not to the War Cabinet.[229] The final report of the Commission was issued in 1919, concluding that with the forces available, success was dependent on the government giving priority to the expedition and leaving the British Expeditionary Force in France to make do. The Commissioners found that Hamilton had been over-optimistic from the beginning and had added to Stopford's difficulties on 8 August 1915. Hamilton emerged from the investigation more favourably than perhaps was justified, partly because he made devious attempts to gain collusion from witnesses and obtain leaks from the deliberations of the Commission; Hamilton was never given another army appointment.[232][e]

Casualties

Gallipoli casualties (not including illness)[7][234][235][236][237]
Countries Dead Wounded Missing
or
POW
Total
Ottoman
Empire
56,643 97,007 11,178 164,828
United Kingdom 34,072 78,520 7,654 120,246
France 9,798 17,371 27,169
Australia 8,709 19,441 28,150
New Zealand 2,721 4,752 7,473
British India 1,358 3,421 4,779
Newfoundland 49 93 142
Total (Allies) 56,707 123,598 7,654 187,959

Casualty figures for the campaign vary between sources but in 2001, Edward J. Erickson wrote that in the Gallipoli Campaign over 100,000 men were killed, including 56,000–68,000 Ottoman and around 53,000 British and French soldiers.[7] Using the Ottoman Archives, Erickson estimated that Ottoman casualties in the Gallipoli Campaign were 56,643 men died from all causes, 97,007 troops were wounded or injured and 11,178 men went missing or were captured.[12] In 2001, Carlyon gave figures of 43,000 British killed or missing, including 8,709 Australians.[238] In September 1915 Godley complained that too few of the recovered sick or wounded casualties from Gallipoli were being returned from Egypt, and General John Maxwell replied that "the appetite of the Dardanelles for men has been phenomenal and wicked".[239]

There were nearly 500,000 casualties during the campaign, with the British History of the Great War listing losses including sick as 205,000 British, 47,000 French and 251,000 Ottoman troops (with some Turkish (sic) sources referring to 350,000 casualties.)[235] Ottoman casualties have been disputed and in 2001, Tim Travers gave casualty figures of 2,160 officers and 287,000 other ranks (battle and non-battle); included among this may be 87,000 killed.[240][15] Sanders estimated that the Ottomans suffered 218,000 casualties, including 66,000 dead and that 42,000 wounded returned to duty.[7]

The New Zealand semi-official history (1919, by Fred Waite) estimated that 8,556 New Zealanders served at Gallipoli and contained an estimate of 251,000 Ottoman battle casualties including 86,692 dead.[234] In 2000, McGibbon wrote that 2,721 New Zealanders had been killed, about a quarter of those who had initially landed on the peninsula; other estimates were 2,701 (Pugsley) or 2,779 (Stowers).[15][241] A 2019 study by New Zealand historians John Crawford and Matthew Buck arrived at a higher estimate for the numbers of New Zealand soldiers who served at Gallipoli, over 16,000, perhaps 17,000 (rather than earlier revised figures of 13,000 to 14,000 and the 1919 figure of 8,556).[242]

Sickness

Many soldiers became sick due to insanitary conditions, especially from typhoid, dysentery and diarrhoea. Cecil Aspinall-Oglander, the British official historian, reported that 90,000 British Empire soldiers were evacuated for illness during the campaign.[235][7] A total of 145,154 British troops fell sick, not counting Dominion or Indian troops; of these, 3,778 died, exclusive of those evacuated. The sick were transported from Gallipoli to hospitals in Egypt and Malta as quickly as possible as bases in the area of operations were insufficient. Approximately 2.84 percent of men removed as non-battle casualties died, against 0.91 percent in France and Flanders. The proportion of disease casualties to battle casualties was considerably higher in the Gallipoli campaign than it was on the campaigns of the Western Front.[243] Aspinall-Oglander gave the number of Ottoman troops evacuated sick as 64,440.[7] The largest cause of non-battle admissions to hospital for British troops was dysentery, with 29,728 men infected and another 10,383 men having diarrhoea. Other notable conditions were frostbite with 6,602 hospitalisations, gonorrhea 1,774 cases, and rheumatic fever 6,556 cases.[244] French casualties during the campaign amounted to around 47,000.[245][246][235] Of the French casualties, 27,169 were killed, wounded or missing with an implied 20,000 who fell sick.[237][f]

Allegations were made that Allied forces had attacked or bombarded Ottoman hospitals and hospital ships on several occasions between the start of the campaign and September 1915. By July 1915, 25 Ottoman hospitals had been built with 10,700 beds, and three hospital ships were in the area. The French Government disputed these complaints through the Red Cross and the British responded that if it happened then it was accidental. Russia, in turn, claimed that the Ottomans had attacked two of their hospital ships, Portugal and Vperiod but the Ottoman Government replied that the vessels had been the victims of mines.[247] No chemical weapons were used at Gallipoli, although the Allies debated their use throughout the campaign and transported to the theatre quantities of gas, which was used against Ottoman troops in the Middle Eastern theatre two years later, during the Second Battle of Gaza and the Third Battle of Gaza in 1917.[248][249][g]

Graves and memorials

 
Greek children standing by the bones of soldiers they have collected, who died during the 1915 Gallipoli campaign, on Hill 60, Anzac Cove in 1919

The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is responsible for permanent cemeteries for all Commonwealth of Nations forces. There are 31 CWGC cemeteries on the Gallipoli peninsula: six at Helles (plus the only solitary grave, that of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Doughty-Wylie VC, Royal Welch Fusiliers), four at Suvla and 21 at Anzac.[253] For many of those killed or died on hospital ships and were buried at sea, there is no known grave; their names are recorded on one of five "memorials to the missing". The Lone Pine Memorial commemorates Australians killed in the Anzac sector, as well as New Zealanders with no known grave or who were buried at sea, while the Lone Pine, Hill 60 and Chunuk Bair memorials commemorate New Zealanders killed at Anzac. The Twelve Tree Copse Memorial commemorates the New Zealanders killed in the Helles sector, while British, Indian and Australian troops who died there are commemorated on the Helles Memorial at Cape Helles. British naval casualties who were lost or buried at sea are listed on memorials in the United Kingdom.[254][255]

 
12 May 1925 – Unveiling of Chunuk Bair Memorial

There are three more CWGC cemeteries on the Greek island of Lemnos, the first one for the 352 Allied soldiers in Portianou, the second one for the 148 Australian and 76 New Zealand soldiers in the town of Moudros and the third one for the Ottoman soldiers (170 Egyptian and 56 Turkish soldiers).[256] Lemnos was the hospital base for the Allied forces and most of the buried were among the men who died of their wounds.[257][258] Makeshift graves were created during the campaign, often with simple wooden crosses or markers; some graves were decorated more extensively.[259][260][261] There is a French cemetery on the Gallipoli Peninsula, located at Seddülbahir.[262] There are no large Ottoman/Turkish military cemeteries on the peninsula but there are numerous memorials, the main ones being the Çanakkale Martyrs' Memorial at Morto Bay, Cape Helles (near 'S' Beach), the Turkish Soldier's Memorial on Chunuk Bair and the memorial and open-air mosque for the 57th Regiment near Quinn's Post (Bomba Sirt). There are a number of memorials and cemeteries on the Asian shore of the Dardanelles, demonstrating the greater emphasis that Turkish historians place on the victory of 18 March over the subsequent fighting on the peninsula.[263]

Subsequent operations

Allied troops were withdrawn to Lemnos and then to Egypt.[264] French forces (renamed the Corps Expeditionnaire des Dardanelles in late October) were subsumed into the Army of the Orient and later employed at Salonika.[265][266] In Egypt, the British Imperial and Dominion troops from the Dardanelles along with fresh divisions from the United Kingdom and those at Salonika, became the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF), commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Archibald Murray. They joined the Force in Egypt to become the strategic reserve for the British Empire, consisting of 13 infantry and mounted divisions with 400,000 men. In March 1916, Murray took command of both these forces, forming them into the new Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) and reorganising the units for service in Europe, Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle East.[267][268][269] While the ANZAC was disbanded, the AIF was expanded with three new Australian divisions being raised and a New Zealand Division was also formed. These units moved to the Western Front in mid-1916.[190]

 
Gallipoli campaign epitaph at Lone Pine Cemetery

The British yeomanry units that had fought dismounted at Gallipoli were reinforced and reorganised,[270][271] forming the 74th (Yeomanry) Division and a portion of the 75th Division.[272][273] Along with the Australian Light Horsemen and New Zealand Mounted Rifles remounted and reorganised into the Anzac Mounted Division, infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division, 42nd (East Lancashire) Division,[274] 53rd (Welsh) Division and 54th (East Anglian) Division,[275][276] later joined by additional remounted Australian Light Horsemen and British yeomanry from the Australian Mounted Division,[277] participated in the Sinai and Palestine campaign. The Egyptian Sinai was reoccupied in 1916, while Palestine and the northern Levant were captured from the Ottoman Empire during 1917 and 1918, before the Armistice of Mudros ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre on 31 October. The Allies subsequently occupied Gallipoli and Istanbul and partitioned the Ottoman Empire.[278] The occupation ended in 1923 following the Turkish War of Independence, the Armistice of Mudanya and the Treaty of Lausanne.[279]

Legacy

The significance of the Gallipoli campaign is felt strongly in both Australia and New Zealand, despite their being only a portion of the Allied forces; the campaign is regarded in both nations as a "baptism of fire" and had been linked to their emergence as independent states.[280] Approximately 50,000 Australians served at Gallipoli and from 16,000 to 17,000 New Zealanders.[281][282][283][284] It has been argued that the campaign proved significant in the emergence of a unique Australian identity following the war, which has been closely linked to popular conceptualisations of the qualities of the soldiers that fought during the campaign, which became embodied in the notion of an "Anzac spirit".[285]

The landing on 25 April is commemorated every year in both countries as "Anzac Day". The first iteration was celebrated unofficially in 1916, at churches in Melbourne, Brisbane and London, before being officially recognised as a public holiday in all Australian states in 1923.[253] The day also became a national holiday in New Zealand in the 1920s.[286] Organised marches by veterans began in 1925, in the same year a service was held on the beach at Gallipoli; two years later the first official dawn service took place at the Sydney Cenotaph. During the 1980s, it became popular for Australian and New Zealand tourists to visit Gallipoli to attend the dawn service there and since then thousands have attended.[253] Over 10,000 people attended the 75th anniversary along with political leaders from Turkey, New Zealand, Britain and Australia.[287] Dawn services are also held in Australia; in New Zealand, dawn services are the most popular form of observance of this day.[288] Anzac Day remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in Australia and New Zealand, surpassing Remembrance Day (Armistice Day).[289]

Along with memorials and monuments established in towns and cities, many streets, public places and buildings were named after aspects of the campaign, especially in Australia and New Zealand.[291] Some examples include Gallipoli Barracks at Enoggera in Queensland,[292] and the Armed Forces Armoury in Corner Brook, Newfoundland which is named the Gallipoli Armouries.[293] Gallipoli also had a significant impact on popular culture, including in film, television and song.[294] In 1971, Scottish-born Australian folk singer-songwriter Eric Bogle wrote a song called "And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda" which consisted of an account from a young Australian soldier who was maimed during the Gallipoli campaign. The song has been praised for its imagery, evoking the devastation at the Gallipoli landings. It remains widely popular and is considered by some to be an iconic anti-war song.[295][296]

In Turkey, the battle is thought of as a significant event in the state's emergence, although it is primarily remembered for the fighting that took place around the port of Çanakkale, where the Royal Navy was repulsed in March 1915.[297] For the Turks, 18 March has a similar significance as 25 April to Australians and New Zealanders, it is not a public holiday but is commemorated with special ceremonies.[298] The campaign's main significance to the Turkish people lies in the role it played in the emergence of Mustafa Kemal, who became the first president of the Republic of Turkey after the war.[299] "Çanakkale geçilmez" (Çanakkale is impassable) became a common phrase to express the state's pride at repulsing the attack and the song "Çanakkale içinde" (A Ballad for Chanakkale) commemorates the Turkish youth who fell during the battle.[300] Turkish filmmaker Sinan Cetin created a movie called Children of Canakkale.[301]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Also known as the Dardanelles campaign, the Defense of Gallipoli or the Battle of Gallipoli (Turkish: Gelibolu Muharebesi, Çanakkale Muharebeleri or Çanakkale Savaşı).
  2. ^ The operation would be complicated by having only five divisions, the rugged terrain of the peninsula, the small number of landing beaches and great difficulty in providing supplies.[48] Later on, the MEF was supported by about 2,000 civilian labourers from the Egyptian and Maltese Labour Corps.[5]
  3. ^ The 57th Regiment was not rebuilt and was not recreated in the Turkish Army.[104]
  4. ^ The events of the day later gained significance, due to the loss of a company of the Norfolk Regiment. Having been recruited from men who worked on King George V's Sandringham estate they were dubbed the Sandringham Company. After being isolated and destroyed during 12 August attack it was rumoured that they had advanced into a mist and "simply disappeared". This gave rise to legends that they had been executed or that they had been taken by some supernatural force but some members were later found to have been taken prisoner.[168]
  5. ^ The enormous casualties at Gallipoli among Irish soldiers who had volunteered to fight in the British Army was a causal factor in the Irish War of Independence; as balladeers sang, "Twas better to die 'neath an Irish sky than in Suvla or Sedd el Bahr".[233]
  6. ^ Appendix 5 of the French official history (AFGG 8,1) has a one page table that not only splits these into subcategory columns but also breaks out the casualties into nine time period rows.[237] For comparative purposes, out of 205,000 British casualties, 115,000 were killed, missing and wounded, 90,000 were evacuated sick.[235]
  7. ^ In November 1918, the Canterbury Mounted Rifles and the 7th Light Horse from the Anzac Mounted Division, were sent to Gallipoli to "monitor Turkish compliance with the terms of the Armistice".[250] The 900 troopers camped at Camburnu near Kilid Bahr for three winter months and reconnoitred the Peninsula, identifying graves and inspecting Ottoman positions.[251] The troopers returned to Egypt on 19 January 1919, less 11 who had died and 110 who were sick in hospital.[252]

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  272. ^ Keogh & Graham 1955, pp. 122, 124.
  273. ^ Becke 1937, p. 121.
  274. ^ Falls & MacMunn 1996, pp. 160–271.
  275. ^ Grey 2008, pp. 99–100, 117.
  276. ^ Dennis 2008, pp. 405–07.
  277. ^ Falls 1930, p. 274.
  278. ^ Holmes 2001, p. 345.
  279. ^ Simkins, Jukes & Hickey 2003, p. 17.
  280. ^ Williams 1999, p. 260.
  281. ^ Crawford & Buck 2020, pp. 8, 117.
  282. ^ Coulthard-Clark 2001, p. 103.
  283. ^ Green 2013.
  284. ^ Ministry for Culture and Heritage 2016, p. 1.
  285. ^ Dennis 2008, pp. 37–42.
  286. ^ Broadbent 2005, p. 278.
  287. ^ Fewster, Basarin & Basarin 2003, p. 13.
  288. ^ Anzac Day Today.
  289. ^ Dennis 2008, p. 32.
  290. ^ "Groundbreaking ceremony for bridge over Dardanelles to take place on March 18". Hürriyet Daily News. 17 March 2017. Retrieved 19 March 2017.
  291. ^ Wilson.
  292. ^ Jobson 2009, p. 103.
  293. ^ CBC News 2012.
  294. ^ Dennis 2008, pp. 203–07, 424–26.
  295. ^ Dennis 2008, p. 426.
  296. ^ Keane 2015.
  297. ^ Fewster, Basarin & Basarin 2003, pp. 6–7.
  298. ^ Fewster, Basarin & Basarin 2003, p. 7.
  299. ^ Fewster, Basarin & Basarin 2003, p. 8.
  300. ^ Eren 2003, p. 5.
  301. ^ Hammer 2017.

References

Books

  • Aspinall-Oglander, Cecil Faber (1929). Military Operations Gallipoli: Inception of the Campaign to May 1915. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. I (1st ed.). London: Heinemann. OCLC 464479053.
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  • Austin, Ronald; Duffy, Jack (2006). Where Anzacs Sleep: the Gallipoli Photos of Captain Jack Duffy, 8th Battalion. Slouch Hat Publications.
  • Baldwin, Hanson (1962). World War I: An Outline History. London: Hutchinson. OCLC 793915761.
  • Bean, Charles (1941a) [1921]. The Story of ANZAC from the Outbreak of War to the End of the First Phase of the Gallipoli Campaign, May 4, 1915. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. Vol. I (11th ed.). Sydney: Angus and Robertson. OCLC 220878987.
  • Bean, Charles (1941b) [1921]. The Story of Anzac from 4 May 1915, to the Evacuation of the Gallipoli Peninsula. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. Vol. II (11th ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial. OCLC 39157087.
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  • Ben-Gavriel, Moshe Ya'aqov (1999). Wallas, Armin A. (ed.). Tagebücher: 1915 bis 1927 [Diaries, 1915–1927] (in German). Wien: Böhlau. ISBN 978-3-205-99137-3.
  • Brenchley, Fred; Brenchley, Elizabeth (2001). Stoker's Submarine: Australia's Daring Raid on the Dardanellles on the Day of the Gallipoli Landing. Sydney: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-7322-6703-2.
  • Broadbent, Harvey (2005). Gallipoli: The Fatal Shore. Camberwell, VIC: Viking/Penguin. ISBN 978-0-670-04085-8.
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  • Coulthard-Clark, Chris (2001). The Encyclopaedia of Australia's Battles (Second ed.). Crow's Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-86508-634-7.
  • Cowan, James (1926). The Maoris in the Great War (including Gallipoli). Auckland, NZ: Whitcombe & Tombs for the Maori Regimental Committee. OCLC 4203324.
  • Crawford, John; Buck, Matthew (2020). Phenomenal and Wicked: Attrition and Reinforcements in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force at Gallipoli. Wellington: New Zealand Defence Force. ISBN 978-0-478-34812-5. "ebook". New Zealand Defence Force. 2020.
  • Dando-Collins, Stephen (2012). Crack Hardy: From Gallipoli to Flanders to the Somme, the True Story of Three Australian Brothers at War. North Sydney: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-1-74275-573-1.
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  • Hart, Peter (2013b) [2011]. Gallipoli. London: Profile Books. ISBN 978-1-84668-161-5.
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  • Jobson, Christopher (2009). Looking Forward, Looking Back: Customs and Traditions of the Australian Army. Wavell Heights, Queensland: Big Sky. ISBN 978-0-9803251-6-4.
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  • Rance, Philip (ed./trans.) (2017). The Struggle for the Dardanelles. Major Erich Prigge. The Memoirs of a German Staff Officer in Ottoman Service. Barnsley: Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1-78303-045-3.
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Diaries

  • Laidlaw, Private Victor. "Diaries of Private Victor Rupert Laidlaw, 1914-1984". State Library of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia. [manuscript]. Retrieved 19 May 2020.

Newspapers

  • "Blamey Boys". Daily Advertiser. New South Wales, Australia. 9 November 1939. p. 3. Retrieved 28 April 2018 – via National Library of Australia.
  • "Death of Composer". The News. Vol. 38, no. 5, 811. Adelaide. 12 March 1942. p. 3. Retrieved 29 April 2018 – via National Library of Australia.
  • ""Jack Spade" Wrote Hit And Vanished". The Sunday Herald (Sydney). No. 1. New South Wales, Australia. 23 January 1949. p. 3. Retrieved 28 April 2018 – via National Library of Australia.
  • "Reason for Gallipoli". The Tamworth Daily Observer. Vol. V, no. 253. New South Wales, Australia. 21 October 1915. p. 2. Retrieved 25 April 2018 – via National Library of Australia.

Journals

  • Doyle, Peter; Bennett, Matthew (1999). "Military Geography: The Influence of Terrain in the Outcome of the Gallipoli Campaign, 1915". The Geographical Journal. London: Royal Geographical Society. 165 (1 (March)): 12–36. doi:10.2307/3060508. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 3060508.
  • Ekins, Ashley (2009). "Bloody Ridge: The Assault of Lone Pine". Wartime. Canberra: Australian War Memorial (47): 12–14, 16–18. ISSN 1328-2727.
  • Erickson, Edward (2001b). "Strength Against Weakness: Ottoman Military Effectiveness at Gallipoli, 1915". The Journal of Military History. 65 (4): 981–1012. doi:10.2307/2677626. ISSN 1543-7795. JSTOR 2677626.
  • Gilbert, Greg (2013). "Air War Over the Dardanelles". Wartime. Canberra: Australian War Memorial (61): 42–47. ISSN 1328-2727.
  • Hart, Peter (2007). "War is Helles: The Real Fight for Gallipoli". Wartime. Canberra: Australian War Memorial (38): 10–12. ISSN 1328-2727.
  • Hart, Peter (2013a). "The Day It All Went Wrong: The Naval Assault Before the Gallipoli Landings". Wartime. Canberra: Australian War Memorial (62): 8–13. ISSN 1328-2727.
  • Hughes, Matthew (2005). "The French Army at Gallipoli". The RUSI Journal. 153 (3): 64–67. doi:10.1080/03071840508522907. ISSN 0307-1847. S2CID 154727404.
  • Sheffy, Yigal (2005). "The Chemical Dimension of the Gallipoli Campaign: Introducing Chemical Warfare to the Middle East". War in History. Sage Publications. 12 (3): 278–317. doi:10.1191/0968344505wh317oa. ISSN 1477-0385. S2CID 154534581.
  • Stevenson, Robert (2007). (PDF). Australian Army Journal. IV (1): 185–99. OCLC 30798241. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2017.

Websites

  • (PDF). Australian Department of Veterans' Affairs. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2010.
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  • "AWM 4-10-2-47 2nd Light Horse Brigade War Diary November 1918 Appendix 3" (pdf). Headquarters 2nd Light Horse Brigade. Retrieved 27 April 2013.
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  • . Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Archived from the original on 12 July 2007. Retrieved 3 December 2006.
  • "Enumerating New Zealand Expeditionary Force Service on Gallipoli" (PDF). Manatū Taonga, the Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Ministry for Culture and Heritage (MCH) and the New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF). 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
  • "Gallipoli Casualties by Country". NZ History. New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 1 March 2016. Retrieved 15 January 2017.
  • "ebook Phenomenal and Wicked: Attrition and Reinforcements in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force at Gallipoli". New Zealand Defence Force. 2020.
  • Green, David (28 August 2013). "How Many New Zealanders Served on Gallipoli?". Retrieved 26 November 2015.
  • Hammer, Joshua. "A New View of the Battle of Gallipoli, One of the Bloodiest Conflicts of World War I". Smithsonian. Retrieved 23 October 2017.
  • Keane, Daniel (22 April 2015). "Eric Bogle: Australia's anti-war balladeer reflects on his Anzac anthem and his upcoming trip to Gallipoli". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
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  • "Kurtuluş Savaşı Komutanları". canakkalesehitlik.net. 5 May 2015.
  • "Lead Contamination Closes Corner Brook Armoury". CBC News. 12 January 2012.
  • "Nazi Shell in Egypt Wounds One of British Empire's Most Fabulous Soldiers". Life. 17 August 1942. p. 28. Retrieved 19 November 2011.
  • "Portianos Military Cemetery". Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
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Further reading

  • Basarin, Vecihi; Basarin, Hatice Hurmuz (2008). Beneath the Dardanelles: The Australian Submarine at Gallipoli. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74175-595-4.
  • Baly, Lindsay (2003). Horseman, Pass By: The Australian Light Horse in World War I. East Roseville, NSW: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 223425266.
  • Carlyon, Les (11 November 2004). "Australian War Memorial Anniversary Oration: Gallipoli in a Nation's Remembrance". soundtrack and text. Australian War Memorial. from the original on 8 December 2004. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  • Erickson, Edward J. (2007). Gooch, John; Reid, Brian Holden (eds.). Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: A Comparative Study. Military History and Policy. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-96456-9.
  • Gilbert, Martin (2004). The First World War: A Complete History. New York: Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 978-0-8050-7617-2.
  • Hart, Peter (2011). Gallipoli. London: Profile Books. ISBN 978-1-84668-159-2.
  • Kraaijestein, Martin; Schulten, Paul (2009). Het Epos van Gallipoli. Feiten, verhalen en mythen over de geallieerde aanval op Turkije tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog [The Epic of Gallipoli. Facts, Stories and Myths about the Allied Attack on Turkey during World War I] (in Dutch). Soesterberg: Uitgeverij Aspekt. ISBN 978-90-5911-758-7.
  • Kyle, Roy (2003). An Anzac's Story. Camberwell: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-300187-4.
  • Laffin, John (1980). Damn the Dardanelles!: The Story of Gallipoli. London: Osprey. ISBN 0-85045-350-X. OCLC 7770209.
  • Özdemir, H. (2008) [2005]. The Ottoman Army: Disease and Death on the Battlefield 1914–1918. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. ISBN 978-1-60781-964-6.
  • Patton, George S. (1936). The Defense of Gallipoli: A General Staff Study. Hawaii: Hawaiian Department.
  • Plowman, Peter (2013). Voyage to Gallipoli. Kenthurst, NSW: Rosenberg. ISBN 978-1-922013-53-8.
  • Orr, Philip (2006). Field of Bones: An Irish Division at Gallipoli. Dublin, Ireland: Lilliput Press. ISBN 978-1-84351-065-9.
  • Tyquin, Michael (1993). Gallipoli: The Medical War. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-86840-189-8.
  • Uyar, Mesut (2015). The Ottoman Defence Against The Anzac Landing. Australian Army Campaigns. Vol. 16. Newport, NSW: Big Sky. ISBN 978-1-925275-01-8.
  • Waite, Fred (1919). The New Zealanders at Gallipoli. Official History New Zealand's Effort in the Great War. Vol. I. Auckland, NZ: Whitcombe and Tombs. OCLC 8003944.

External links

  • Winston Churchill & Gallipoli – UK Parliament Living Heritage
  •   Media related to Battle of Gallipoli at Wikimedia Commons
  • . Archived from the original on 1 September 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  • "Original reports from The Times".
  • . Omniatlas.com. Archived from the original on 19 April 2014. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
  • "Despatches". The campaign at the Dardanelles (Gallipoli). The Long Long Trail.
  • . Macquarie University. Archived from the original on 8 June 2013.
  • "Winston Churchill's World War Disaster".
  • "Gallipoli casualties by country". NZ History.
  •   Gallipoli Diary public domain audiobook at LibriVox
  • "Australia's role in the Gallipoli Campaign". ABC and Department of Veteran's Affairs.

gallipoli, campaign, battle, gallipoli, redirects, here, other, uses, battle, gallipoli, disambiguation, dardanelles, campaign, redirects, here, other, uses, battle, dardanelles, military, campaign, first, world, that, took, place, gallipoli, peninsula, gelibo. Battle of Gallipoli redirects here For other uses see Battle of Gallipoli disambiguation Dardanelles Campaign redirects here For other uses see Battle of the Dardanelles The Gallipoli campaign a was a military campaign in the First World War that took place on the Gallipoli peninsula Gelibolu in modern Turkey from 17 February 1915 to 9 January 1916 The Entente powers Britain France and Russia sought to weaken the Ottoman Empire one of the Central Powers by taking control of the Ottoman straits This would expose the Ottoman capital at Constantinople to bombardment by Allied battleships and cut it off from the Asian part of the empire With Turkey defeated the Suez Canal would be safe and a year round Allied supply route could be opened through the Black Sea to warm water ports in Russia Gallipoli campaignPart of the Middle Eastern theatre of the First World WarA collection of photographs from the campaign From top and left to right Ottoman commanders including Mustafa Kemal fourth from left Allied warships V Beach from the deck of SS River Clyde Ottoman soldiers in a trench and Allied positionsDate17 February 1915 9 January 1916 10 months 3 weeks and 2 days LocationGallipoli Peninsula Sanjak of Gelibolu Adrianople Vilayet Ottoman Empire40 14 15 N 26 16 39 E 40 23750 N 26 27750 E 40 23750 26 27750 Coordinates 40 14 15 N 26 16 39 E 40 23750 N 26 27750 E 40 23750 26 27750ResultOttoman victoryBelligerents United Kingdom Australia New Zealand India Newfoundland France AlgeriaTunisiaWest Africa Naval support Russia Ottoman Empire Supported by Germany 1 2 Austria Hungary 3 Commanders and leadersIan HamiltonHerbert KitchenerJohn de RobeckWilliam BirdwoodWinston ChurchillHenri GouraudMaurice BailloudEnver PashaOtto von SandersColak Faik PashaWehib PashaMehmed Esad PashaFevzi Pasha 4 Cevat PashaMustafa Kemal BeyCafer Tayyar BeyErich WeberCemil ConkAhmet Fevzi BeyHalil Sami BeySelahattin Adil BeyYakub Shevki BeyKazim BeyUnits involvedMediterranean Expeditionary ForceEgyptian Labour Corps 5 Maltese Labour Corps 5 Oriental Expeditionary Corps5th Army German military mission 6 Strength5 divisions initial 15 divisions final Total 489 000 7 345 000 British including Irish Indians and Newfoundlanders 79 000 French 8 c 50 000 Australians c 15 000 New ZealandersSupported by c 2 000 civilian labourers 5 6 divisions initial 16 divisions final Total 315 500 8 9 c 700 Germans 10 Casualties and lossesBritish Empire 198 340 31 389 killed 9 708 missing and POW78 749 wounded78 494 evacuated sick 11 7 France 9 000 killed amp missing18 000 wounded20 000 evacuated sick 11 Australia 7 594 killed18 500 wounded New Zealand 3 431 killed4 140 wounded 11 Total 300 000 56 707 killed 11 Ottoman Empire 255 268 56 643 killed 97 007 wounded or injured 11 178 missing or POW69 440 evacuated sick 12 21 000 died of disease 7 Total 255 268 56 643 killed 7 12 The attempt by the Allied fleet to force a passage through the Dardanelles in February 1915 failed and was followed by an amphibious landing on the Gallipoli peninsula in April 1915 In January 1916 after eight months fighting with approximately 250 000 casualties on each side the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force withdrawn It was a costly campaign for the Entente powers and the Ottoman Empire as well as for the sponsors of the expedition especially the First Lord of the Admiralty 1911 1915 Winston Churchill The campaign was considered a great Ottoman victory In Turkey it is regarded as a defining moment in the history of the state a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire retreated The struggle formed the basis for the Turkish War of Independence and the declaration of the Republic of Turkey eight years later with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk who rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli as founder and president The campaign is often considered to be the beginning of Australian and New Zealand national consciousness 25 April the anniversary of the landings is known as Anzac Day the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in the two countries surpassing Remembrance Day Armistice Day 13 14 15 Contents 1 Background 1 1 Allied strategy and the Dardanelles 1 2 Attempt to force the Straits 1 3 18 March 1915 2 Prelude 2 1 Allied landing preparations 2 2 Ottoman defensive preparations 3 Landings 3 1 ANZAC Cove 3 2 Cape Helles 4 Land campaign 4 1 Early battles 4 2 Operations May 1915 4 3 Ottoman counter offensive 19 May 4 4 Operations June July 1915 4 5 August offensive 4 6 Evacuation 5 Aftermath 5 1 Military repercussions 5 2 Political effects 5 3 Casualties 5 3 1 Sickness 5 3 2 Graves and memorials 5 4 Subsequent operations 6 Legacy 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Footnotes 10 References 10 1 Books 10 2 Diaries 10 3 Newspapers 10 4 Journals 10 5 Websites 11 Further reading 12 External linksBackground EditMain articles Middle Eastern theatre of World War I and Ottoman entry into World War I On 29 October 1914 two former German warships the Ottoman Yavuz Sultan Selim and Midilli still under the command of German officers conducted the Black Sea raid in which they bombarded the Russian port of Odessa and sank several ships 16 On 31 October the Ottomans entered the war and began the Caucasus campaign against Russia The British briefly bombarded forts in Gallipoli invaded Mesopotamia and studied the possibility of forcing the Dardanelles 17 18 Allied strategy and the Dardanelles Edit Sea access to Russia through the Dardanelles in yellow Before the Dardanelles operation was conceived the British had planned to conduct an amphibious invasion near Alexandretta on the Mediterranean an idea originally presented by Boghos Nubar in 1914 19 This plan was made by the Secretary of State for War Field Marshal Earl Kitchener to sever the capital from Syria Palestine and Egypt Alexandretta was an area with a Christian population and was the strategic centre of the Ottoman railway network its capture would cut the empire in two Vice Admiral Sir Richard Peirse Commander in Chief East Indies ordered Captain Frank Larkin of HMS Doris to Alexandretta on 13 December 1914 The Russian cruiser Askold and the French cruiser Requin were also there Kitchener was working on the plan in March 1915 and was the beginning of the British attempt to incite an Arab Revolt The Alexandretta landing was abandoned because militarily it would have required more resources than France could allocate and politically France did not want the British operating in their sphere of influence a position to which Britain had agreed in 1912 20 By late 1914 on the Western Front the Franco British counter offensive of the First Battle of the Marne had ended and the Belgians British and French had suffered many casualties in the First Battle of Ypres in Flanders The war of manoeuvre had ended and been replaced by trench warfare 21 The German Empire and Austria Hungary closed the overland trade routes between Britain and France in the west and Russia in the east The White Sea in the arctic north and the Sea of Okhotsk in the Far East were icebound in winter and distant from the Eastern Front the Baltic Sea was blockaded by the Kaiserliche Marine Imperial German Navy and the entrance to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles was controlled by the Ottoman Empire 22 While the Ottomans remained neutral supplies could still be sent to Russia through the Dardanelles but prior to the Ottoman entry into the war the straits had been closed in November the Ottomans began to mine the waterway 23 24 The French Minister of Justice Aristide Briand proposed in November to attack the Ottoman Empire but this was rejected and an attempt by the British to bribe the Ottomans to join the Allied side also failed 25 Later that month Winston Churchill First Lord of the Admiralty proposed a naval attack on the Dardanelles based in part on erroneous reports of Ottoman troop strength Churchill wanted to use a large number of obsolete battleships which could not operate against the German High Seas Fleet in a Dardanelles operation with a small occupation force provided by the army It was hoped that an attack on the Ottomans would also draw Bulgaria and Greece formerly Ottoman possessions into the war on the Allied side 26 On 2 January 1915 Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia appealed to Britain for assistance against the Ottomans who were campaigning in Caucasus 27 Planning began for a naval demonstration in the Dardanelles to divert Ottoman troops from Caucasia 28 Attempt to force the Straits Edit Main article Naval operations in the Dardanelles campaign Graphic map of the Dardanelles and Gallipoli showing the Allied bridgeheads at Cape Helles and ANZAC Cove On 17 February 1915 a British seaplane from HMS Ark Royal flew a reconnaissance sortie over the Straits 29 Two days later the first attack on the Dardanelles began when a strong Anglo French task force including the British dreadnought HMS Queen Elizabeth began a long range bombardment of Ottoman coastal artillery batteries The British had intended to use eight aircraft from Ark Royal to spot for the bombardment but harsh conditions rendered all but one of these a Short Type 136 unserviceable 30 A period of bad weather slowed the initial phase but by 25 February the outer forts had been reduced and the entrance cleared of mines 31 After this Royal Marines were landed to destroy guns at Kum Kale and Seddulbahir while the naval bombardment shifted to batteries between Kum Kale and Kephez 32 Frustrated by the mobility of the Ottoman batteries which evaded the Allied bombardments and threatened the minesweepers sent to clear the Straits Churchill began pressuring the naval commander Admiral Sackville Carden to increase the fleet s efforts 33 Carden drew up fresh plans and on 4 March sent a cable to Churchill stating that the fleet could expect to arrive in Istanbul within 14 days 34 A sense of impending victory was heightened by the interception of a German wireless message that revealed the Ottoman Dardanelles forts were running out of ammunition 34 When the message was relayed to Carden it was agreed the main attack would be launched on or around 17 March Carden suffering from stress was placed on the sick list by the medical officer and command was taken over by Admiral John de Robeck 35 18 March 1915 Edit Panoramic view of the Allied fleet in the Dardanelles On the morning of 18 March 1915 the Allied fleet comprising 18 battleships with an array of cruisers and destroyers began the main attack against the narrowest point of the Dardanelles where the straits are 1 mi 1 6 km wide Despite some damage to the Allied ships engaging the forts by Ottoman return fire minesweepers were ordered along the straits In the Ottoman official account by 2 00 p m all telephone wires were cut all communications with the forts were interrupted some of the guns had been knocked out in consequence the artillery fire of the defence had slackened considerably 36 The French battleship Bouvet struck a mine causing her to capsize in two minutes with just 75 survivors out of a total crew of 718 37 Minesweepers manned by civilians retreated under Ottoman artillery fire leaving the minefields largely intact HMS Irresistible and HMS Inflexible struck mines and Irresistible was sunk with most of her surviving crew rescued Inflexible was badly damaged and withdrawn There was confusion during the battle about the cause of the damage some participants blamed torpedoes HMS Ocean was sent to rescue Irresistible but was disabled from an artillery shell struck a mine and was evacuated eventually sinking 38 The French battleships Suffren and Gaulois sailed through a new line of mines placed secretly by the Ottoman minelayer Nusret ten days before and were also damaged 39 The losses forced de Robeck to sound the general recall to protect what remained of his force 40 During the planning of the campaign naval losses had been anticipated and mainly obsolete battleships unfit to face the German fleet had been sent Some of the senior naval officers like the commander of Queen Elizabeth Commodore Roger Keyes felt that they had come close to victory believing that the Ottoman guns had almost run out of ammunition but the views of de Robeck the First Sea Lord Jackie Fisher and others prevailed Allied attempts to force the straits using naval power were terminated due to the losses and bad weather 40 35 41 Planning to capture the Turkish defences by land to open the way for the ships began Two Allied submarines tried to traverse the Dardanelles but were lost to mines and the strong currents 42 Prelude EditAllied landing preparations Edit Main article Order of battle for the Gallipoli campaign French troops land at Lemnos 1915 After the failure of the naval attacks troops were assembled to eliminate the Ottoman mobile artillery which was preventing the Allied minesweepers from clearing the way for the larger vessels Kitchener appointed General Sir Ian Hamilton to command the 78 000 men of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force MEF 35 43 Soldiers from the Australian Imperial Force AIF and New Zealand Expeditionary Force NZEF were encamped in Egypt undergoing training prior to being sent to France 44 The Australian and New Zealand troops were formed into the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ANZAC commanded by Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood comprising the volunteer 1st Australian Division and the New Zealand and Australian Division The ANZAC troops were joined by the regular 29th Division and the Royal Naval Division 29 The French Corps expeditionnaire d Orient Orient Expeditionary Corps initially consisting of two brigades within one division was subsequently placed under Hamilton s command 45 46 47 b Over the following month Hamilton prepared his plan and the British and French divisions joined the Australians in Egypt Hamilton chose to concentrate on the southern part of the Gallipoli peninsula at Cape Helles and Seddulbahir where an unopposed landing was expected 49 The Allies initially discounted the fighting ability of the Ottoman soldiers 50 The naivete of the Allied planners was illustrated by a leaflet that was issued to the British and Australians while they were still in Egypt Turkish soldiers as a rule manifest their desire to surrender by holding their rifle butt upward and by waving clothes or rags of any colour An actual white flag should be regarded with the utmost suspicion as a Turkish soldier is unlikely to possess anything of that colour 51 The underestimation of Ottoman military potential stemmed from a sense of superiority among the Allies because of the decline of the Ottoman Empire and its poor performance in Libya during the Italo Turkish War of 1911 1912 and the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 Allied intelligence failed to adequately prepare for the campaign in some cases relying on information gained from Egyptian travel guides 52 53 The troops for the assault were loaded on transports in the order they were to disembark causing a long delay which meant that many troops including the French at Mudros were forced to detour to Alexandria to embark on the ships that would take them into battle 54 A five week delay until the end of April ensued during which the Ottomans strengthened their defences on the peninsula although bad weather during March and April might have delayed the landings anyway preventing supply and reinforcement 55 Following preparations in Egypt Hamilton and his headquarters staff arrived at Mudros on 10 April 56 The ANZAC Corps departed Egypt in early April and assembled on the island of Lemnos in Greece on 12 April where a small garrison had been established in early March and practice landings were undertaken 55 The British 29th Division departed for Mudros on 7 April and the Royal Naval Division rehearsed on the island of Skyros after arriving there on 17 April 57 That day the British submarine HMS E15 tried to run the straits but hit a submarine net ran aground and was shelled by a Turkish fort killing its commander Lieutenant Commander Theodore S Brodie and six of his crew the survivors were forced to surrender 58 The Allied fleet and British and French troops assembled at Mudros ready for the landings but poor weather from 19 March grounded Allied aircraft for nine days and on 24 days only a partial programme of reconnaissance flights were possible 59 60 Ottoman defensive preparations Edit Dispositions of the Ottoman 5th Army The Ottoman force prepared to repel a landing on either side of the Straits was the 5th Army 61 This force which initially consisted of five divisions with another en route was a conscript force commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders 29 62 63 Many of the senior officers in the 5th Army were also German 1 Ottoman commanders and senior German officers debated the best means of defending the peninsula All agreed that the best defence was to hold the high ground on the ridges of the peninsula There was disagreement as to where the enemy would land and hence where to concentrate forces Lieutenant Colonel Mustafa Kemal was familiar with the Gallipoli peninsula from his operations against Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and forecast that Cape Helles the southern tip of the peninsula and Gaba Tepe were the likely areas for landing 64 65 Mustafa Kemal believed that the British would use their naval power to command the land from every side at the tip of the peninsula at Gaba Tepe the short distance to the eastern coast meant that the Allies could easily reach the Narrows the right angled bend in the middle of the Dardanelles 66 67 Sanders considered Besika Bay on the Asiatic coast to be the most vulnerable to invasion since the terrain was easier to cross and was convenient to attack the most important Ottoman batteries guarding the straits and a third of the 5th Army was assembled there 68 Two divisions were concentrated at Bulair at the north end of the Gallipoli peninsula to protect supply and communication lines to the defences further down the peninsula 69 The 19th Division Kemal and the 9th Division were placed along the Aegean coast and at Cape Helles on the tip of the peninsula Sanders kept the bulk of the Ottoman forces inland in reserve leaving a minimum of troops guarding the coast 70 The 3rd Division and a cavalry brigade arrived from Istanbul in early April bringing the front line strength of the Ottomans to 60 000 62 077 men which Sanders concentrated in three groups A maximum effort to improve land and sea communications was ordered to move reinforcements swiftly to danger points troops moved at night to avoid Allied air reconnaissance Sanders strategy was opposed by Ottoman commanders including Kemal who believed that the defenders were too widely dispersed to defeat the invasion on the beaches 71 Kemal thought Sander s classic strategy was suitable when there was strategic depth to the front but Gallipoli did not offer that His commander Esat Passa was not forceful enough in making the objection 72 73 Sanders was certain that a rigid system of defence would fail and that the only hope of success lay in the mobility of the three groups particularly the 19th Division near Boghali in general reserve ready to move to Bulair Gaba Tepe or the Asiatic shore 74 Heavy artillery from the German inland gun emplacement 1915 The time needed by the British to organise the landings meant that Sanders Colonel Hans Kannengiesser and other German officers supported by Esat Pasha III Corps had more time to prepare their defences 29 Sanders later noted the British allowed us four good weeks of respite for all this work before their great disembarkation This respite just sufficed for the most indispensable measures to be taken 75 Roads were constructed small boats built to carry troops and equipment across the Narrows beaches were wired and improvised mines were constructed from torpedo warheads Trenches and gun emplacements were dug along the beaches and troops went on route marches to avoid lethargy 75 Kemal whose 19th Division was vital to the defensive scheme observed the beaches and awaited signs of an invasion from his post at Boghali near Maidos 76 The Ottomans created Ottoman Aviation Squadrons with German assistance and had four aircraft operating around Canakkale in February conducting reconnaissance and army co operation sorties From 11 April an Ottoman aircraft made frequent flights over Mudros keeping watch on the assembly of the British naval force and an airfield was established near Gallipoli 59 77 29 Landings EditMain articles Landing at ANZAC Cove and Landing at Cape Helles Landing at Gallipoli April 1915 The Allies planned to land and secure the northern shore capture the Ottoman forts and artillery batteries for a naval force to advance through the Narrows and the Sea of Marmara towards Istanbul 78 Scheduled for 23 April but postponed until 25 April due to bad weather landings were to be made at five beaches on the peninsula 79 The 29th Division was to land at Helles on the tip of the peninsula and then advance upon the forts at Kilitbahir The ANZACs with the 3rd Australian Infantry Brigade spearheading the assault were to land north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast from where they could advance across the peninsula cut off the Ottoman troops in Kilitbahir and stop reinforcements from reaching Cape Helles 80 81 This sector of the Gallipoli Peninsula became known as ANZAC the area held by the British and French became known as the Helles sector or Helles The French made a diversionary landing at Kum Kale on the Asian shore before re embarking to hold the eastern area of the Helles sector The Royal Naval Division simulated landing preparations at Bulair and a New Zealand officer Bernard Freyberg swam ashore under fire to light flares to distract the defenders from the real landings Freyberg was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order 82 83 84 Arrangements for naval gunfire support to the landings had originally included bombarding the beaches and approaches but was changed to engagement of the ridges during the landings with the beaches only to be shelled prior to the landings No decision was ultimately made on the issue of close support and it was left to the initiative of ships captains A reluctance to approach the shore later affected the landings at V and W beach where some of the worst losses among the infantry occurred while naval gunfire was of some assistance at S X and ANZAC 85 Even then its effectiveness was limited by the initial confusion ashore the broken terrain thick vegetation and the lack of observation 86 Kitchener had ruled that air requirements must be met by the Royal Naval Air Service RNAS and the Allies employed a small force of seaplanes and other aircraft from 3 Squadron RNAS Commander Charles Samson which arrived at Tenedos at the end of March 59 The aircraft were unopposed by the small Ottoman air force at first and during the planning the force had been used to provide aerial reconnaissance although this ultimately proved inadequate to meet the Allies intelligence needs and make up for the lack of adequate maps 87 53 After the landings Allied aircraft conducted photographic reconnaissance observed naval gunfire reported on Ottoman troop movements and conducted a small number of bombing raids 87 ANZAC Cove Edit Allocated the northern landing Birdwood s force included the 1st Australian Division Major General William Bridges and the New Zealand and Australian Division Major General Sir Alexander Godley about 25 000 men The force was to land and advance inland to cut the lines of communication to the Ottoman forces in the south 88 55 The 1st Australian Division would land first with the 3rd Infantry Brigade leading as a covering force moving inland to establish positions on Gun Ridge The 2nd Infantry Brigade was to follow and to capture the higher ground on Sari Bair The 1st Infantry Brigade would land last as the divisional reserve The New Zealand and Australian Division was to come ashore and form up to advance across the peninsula The force was to assemble at night and land at dawn to surprise the defenders and on the evening of 24 April the covering force embarked on battleships and destroyers with the follow on forces in on transports The troops would disembark from the transports into ships boats and be towed close to the shore by steamboats and then row ashore 55 At around 2 00 a m an Ottoman observer on a hill at Ariburnu saw a multitude of ships far on the horizon Captain Faik in charge of a company from the 27th Infantry Regiment verified it with his binoculars and immediately informed his commanding officer Ismet Bey at Kabatepe By 3 00 a m the moon was covered and the ships were no longer visible to the Ottomans 89 The Ottomans were not sure if this was a real landing or a diversion Once the intense artillery was heard at around 6 00 a m the two remaining battalions of the 27th Infantry Regiment were ordered to make their way to Ariburnu urgently 90 Sanders had left his HQ and was at Bulair distracted by the few Allied ships that had appeared he had been confident that this was where the landings would take place For two days he remained at Bulair with the 5th Division waiting for the real landing His absence created problems in chain of command and delays in decision making which negated his defence scheme that relied on rapid movement of troops 91 Landing of the covering force from battleships red and destroyers orange at Anzac Cove 25 April 1915 At 4 00 a m on the morning of 25 April the first wave of troops from the 3rd Brigade began moving towards the shore on lighters and ships boats The covering force landed approximately 1 2 mi 2 km too far north in a bay just south of Ari Burnu due to undetected currents or a navigational error 88 55 The landing was more difficult over ground which rose steeply from the beaches unlike the objective to the south which was more open The landing site was garrisoned by only two Ottoman companies but from positions on commanding ground the Ottomans inflicted numerous casualties on the Australians before being overcome 92 The broken terrain prevented a coordinated drive inland with the Australians on unfamiliar ground and with inaccurate maps In the maze of steep ravines spurs and dense scrub Australian parties that got forward quickly lost contact and were broken up into small groups Some Australian troops reached the second ridge but fewer still reached their objectives and having become dispersed the covering force could provide little support to the follow up force 93 The landing of Australian troops at ANZAC Cove Gallipoli Turkey 25 April 1915 The 1st and 2nd Brigades then the New Zealand and Australian Division landed on the beaches around Ari Burnu but became entangled which took time to sort out 94 About four hours after the landings began the bulk of the 1st Australian Division was ashore safely and its leading elements were pushing inland By mid morning Kemal had reorganised the defenders for a counter attack on the commanding heights of Chunuk Bair and Sari Bair 88 The right flank of the small lodgement taken by the Australians was driven in at 10 30 a m with most of 400 Plateau being lost During the afternoon and evening the left flank was pushed back from Baby 700 and the Nek By evening Bridges and Godley recommended re embarkation Birdwood agreed but after advice from the navy that re embarkation was impossible Hamilton ordered the troops dig in instead The Ottoman counter attack was eventually repulsed and the Australians established a perimeter roughly from Walker s Ridge in the north to Shell Green in the south 94 88 ANZAC casualties on the first day numbered around 2 000 men killed or wounded 94 The failure to secure the high ground led to a tactical stalemate with the landings contained by the defenders in a perimeter less than 1 2 mi 2 km long 88 The Australian submarine HMAS AE2 Lieutenant Commander Henry Stoker penetrated the Straits on the night of 24 25 April As landings began at Cape Helles and ANZAC Cove at dawn on 25 April AE2 reached Chanak by 6 00 a m and torpedoed a Turkish gunboat believed to be a Peyk i Sevket class cruiser then evaded a destroyer 95 96 The submarine ran aground beneath a Turkish fort but the Ottoman gunners could not bring their guns to bear and AE2 was manoeuvred free 95 Shortly after refloating the periscope was sighted by a Turkish battleship firing over the peninsula at Allied landing sites and the ship ceased fire and withdrew 95 AE2 advanced toward the Sea of Marmara and at 08 30 Stoker decided to rest the boat on the seabed until nightfall 95 At around 9 00 p m AE2 surfaced to recharge batteries and sent a wireless report to the fleet 95 97 The landing at Cape Helles was going well but the landing at Anzac Cove was not as successful and the Anzac commander Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood contemplated the re embarkation of his troops 95 The success of AE2 was a consideration in Birdwood deciding to persist and reports about AE2 were relayed to the soldiers ashore to improve morale 95 Stoker was ordered to generally run amok and with no enemies in sight he sailed into the Sea of Marmara where AE2 cruised for five days to give the impression of greater numbers and made several attacks against Ottoman ships which failed because of mechanical problems with the torpedoes 98 Cape Helles Edit Further information Landing at Cape Helles Troops of the 29th Indian Brigade landing at Cape Helles The Helles landing was made by the 29th Division Major General Aylmer Hunter Weston The division landed on five beaches in an arc about the tip of the peninsula named S V W X and Y Beaches from east to west 99 On 1 May the 29th Indian Brigade including 1 6th Gurkha Rifles landed took and secured Sari Bair above the landing beaches and was joined by 1 5th Gurkha Rifles and 2 10th Gurkha Rifles the Zion Mule Corps landed at Helles on 27 April 100 At Y Beach during the first engagement the First Battle of Krithia the Allies landed unopposed and advanced inland 101 There were only a small number of defenders in the village but lacking orders to exploit the position the Y Beach commander withdrew his force to the beach It was as close as the Allies ever came to capturing the village as the Ottomans brought up a battalion of the 25th Regiment checking any further movement 102 Cape Helles landing beaches The main landings were made at V Beach beneath the old Seddulbahir fortress and at W Beach a short distance to the west on the other side of the Helles headland The covering force of Royal Munster Fusiliers and Hampshires landed from a converted collier SS River Clyde which was run aground beneath the fortress so that the troops could disembark along ramps The Royal Dublin Fusiliers landed at V Beach and the Lancashire Fusiliers at W Beach in open boats on a shore overlooked by dunes and obstructed with barbed wire On both beaches the Ottoman defenders occupied good defensive positions and inflicted many casualties on the British infantry as they landed Troops emerging one by one from sally ports on River Clyde were shot by machine gunners at the Seddulbahir fort and of the first 200 soldiers to disembark 21 men reached the beach 103 The Ottoman defenders were too few to defeat the landing but inflicted many casualties and contained the attack close to the shore By the morning of 25 April out of ammunition and with nothing but bayonets to meet the attackers on the slopes leading up from the beach to the heights of Chunuk Bair the 57th Infantry Regiment received orders from Kemal I do not order you to fight I order you to die In the time which passes until we die other troops and commanders can come forward and take our places Every man of the regiment was either killed or wounded 104 c At W Beach thereafter known as Lancashire Landing the Lancashires were able to overwhelm the defenders despite the loss of 600 casualties from 1 000 men Six awards of the Victoria Cross were made among the Lancashires at W Beach A further six Victoria Crosses were awarded among the infantry and sailors at the V Beach landing and three more were awarded the following day as they fought their way inland Five squads of Ottoman infantry led by Sergeant Yahya distinguished themselves by repulsing several attacks on their hilltop position the defenders eventually disengaging under cover of darkness 105 After the landings so few men remained from the Dublin and Munster Fusiliers that they were amalgamated into The Dubsters 106 Only one Dubliner officer survived the landing while of the 1 012 Dubliners who landed just 11 survived the Gallipoli campaign unscathed 107 108 After the landings little was done by the Allies to exploit the situation apart from a few limited advances inland by small groups of men The Allied attack lost momentum and the Ottomans had time to bring up reinforcements and rally the small number of defending troops 109 Land campaign EditEarly battles Edit Anzac the landing 1915 by George Lambert 1922 shows the landing at Anzac Cove 25 April 1915 On the afternoon of 27 April the 19th Division reinforced by six battalions from the 5th Division counter attacked the six Allied brigades at Anzac 110 With the support of naval gunfire the Allies held back the Ottomans throughout the night The following day the British were joined by French troops transferred from Kum Kale on the Asiatic shore to the right of the line near S Beach at Morto Bay On 28 April the Allies fought the First Battle of Krithia to capture the village 111 Hunter Weston made a plan which proved overly complex and was poorly communicated to the commanders in the field The troops of the 29th Division were still exhausted and unnerved by the battles for the beaches and for Seddulbahir village which was captured after much fighting on 26 April The Ottoman defenders stopped the Allied advance halfway between the Helles headland and Krithia around 6 00 p m having inflicted 3 000 casualties 112 As Ottoman reinforcements arrived the possibility of a swift Allied victory on the peninsula disappeared and the fighting at Helles and Anzac became a battle of attrition On 30 April the Royal Naval Division Major General Archibald Paris landed The same day Kemal believing that the Allies were on the verge of defeat began moving troops forward through Wire Gulley near the 400 Plateau and Lone Pine Eight battalions of reinforcements were dispatched from Istanbul a day later and that afternoon Ottoman troops counter attacked at Helles and Anzac The Ottomans briefly broke through in the French sector but the attacks were repulsed by massed Allied machine gun fire which inflicted many casualties on the attackers 113 The following night Birdwood ordered the New Zealand and Australian Division to attack from Russell s Top and Quinn s Post towards Baby 700 The Australian 4th Infantry Brigade Colonel John Monash the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and Royal Marines from the Chatham Battalion took part in the attack Covered by a naval and artillery barrage the troops advanced a short distance during the night but got separated in the dark The attackers came under massed small arms fire from their exposed left flank and were repulsed having suffered about 1 000 casualties 114 HMAS AE2 On 30 April the submarine AE2 began to rise uncontrollably and surfaced near the Ottoman torpedo boat Sultanhisar then dropped precipitously below the safe diving depth then broke the surface again at the stern 98 Sultanhisar immediately fired on the submarine puncturing the pressure hull Stoker ordered the company to abandon ship scuttled the submarine and the crew was taken prisoner AE2 s achievements showed that it was possible to force the Straits and soon Ottoman communications were badly disrupted by British and French submarine operations 98 On 27 April HMS E14 Lieutenant Commander Edward Boyle entered the Sea of Marmara on a three week patrol which became one of the most successful Allied naval actions of the campaign in which four ships were sunk including the transport Gul Djemal which was carrying 6 000 troops and a field battery to Gallipoli While the quantity and value of the shipping sunk was minor the effect on Ottoman communications and morale was significant Boyle was awarded the Victoria Cross 115 116 Following the success of AE2 and E14 the French submarine Joule attempted the passage on 1 May but struck a mine and was lost with all hands 117 Several weeks earlier another French boat Saphir had been lost after running aground near Nagara Point 118 Operations May 1915 Edit On 5 May the 42nd East Lancashire Division was dispatched from Egypt 119 Believing Anzac to be secure Hamilton moved the Australian 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade along with 20 Australian field guns to the Helles front as reserves for the Second Battle of Krithia 120 Involving a force of 20 000 men it was the first general attack at Helles and was planned for daylight French troops were to capture Kereves Dere and the British Australians and New Zealanders were assigned Krithia and Achi Baba After 30 minutes of artillery preparation the assault began at mid morning on 6 May 121 The British and French advanced along the Gully Fir Tree Krithia and Kereves spurs which were separated by deep gullies fortified by the Ottomans As the attackers advanced they became separated when trying to outflank Ottoman strong points and found themselves in unfamiliar terrain Under artillery and then machine gun fire from Ottoman outposts that had not been spotted by British aerial reconnaissance the attack was stopped next day reinforcements resumed the advance 122 Ottoman machine gun teams equipped with MG 08s The attack continued on 7 May and four battalions of New Zealanders attacked up Krithia Spur on 8 May with the 29th Division the attackers managed to reach a position just south of the village Late in the afternoon the Australian 2nd Brigade advanced quickly over open ground to the British front line Amidst small arms and artillery fire the brigade charged towards Krithia and gained 600 m 660 yd about 400 m 440 yd short of the objective with 1 000 casualties Near Fir Tree Spur the New Zealanders managed to get forward and link up with the Australians although the British were held up and the French were exhausted despite having occupied a point overlooking their objective The attack was suspended and the Allies dug in having failed to take Krithia or Achi Baba 122 A brief period of consolidation followed the Allies had almost run out of ammunition particularly for the artillery and both sides consolidated their defences 123 The Ottomans relieved troops opposite the Australian line which was reinforced by the Australian Light Horse operating as infantry 124 Sporadic fighting continued with sniping grenade attacks and raids the opposing trenches separated in places by only a few metres 125 124 The Australians lost a number of officers to sniping including the commander of the 1st Division Major General William Bridges who was wounded while inspecting a 1st Light Horse Regiment position near Steele s Post and died of his injuries on the hospital ship HMHS Gascon on 18 May 126 At the end of April Birdwood told GHQ MEF General Headquarters Mediterranean Expeditionary Force that he could not land 6 000 horses at Anzac Cove as there was no water for them GHQ MEF was unhappy that the ANZAC force would be immobilised on the beachhead but they would have been no use Some of the thousands of men and horses remained on board ship for up to a month Birdwood signalled on 17 May that 17 transports would be returning to Alexandria to offload 5 251 horses accompanied by 3 217 men GHQ MEF insisted that some of the men remain in Alexandria to look after the horses and guard ANZACs many vehicles and mountains of baggage 127 Ottoman counter offensive 19 May Edit Main article Third attack on Anzac Cove On 19 May 42 000 Ottoman troops launched an attack at Anzac to push the 17 000 Australians and New Zealanders back into the sea 87 128 Short of artillery and ammunition the Ottomans intended to rely on surprise and weight of numbers but on 18 May the crews of a flight of British aircraft spotted the Ottoman preparations 87 128 The Ottomans suffered c 13 000 casualties in the attack of which 3 000 men were killed Australian and New Zealand casualties were 160 killed and 468 wounded 128 129 130 The dead included a stretcher bearer John Simpson Kirkpatrick whose efforts to evacuate wounded men on a donkey while under fire became famous amongst the Australians at Anzac afterwards his story becoming part of the Australian narrative of the campaign 131 Ottoman losses were so severe that a truce was organised by Aubrey Herbert and others on 24 May to bury the dead lying in no man s land which led to a camaraderie between the armies much like the Christmas truce of 1914 on the Western Front 132 Field Ambulance stretchers a wounded soldier down a path A witness account from Private Victor Laidlaw of the Australian 2nd Field Ambulance described the day The armistice was declared from 8 30 a m this morning till 4 30 p m it is wonderful things are unnaturally quiet and I felt like getting up and making a row myself the rifle fire is quiet no shell fire The stench round the trenches where the dead had been lying for weeks was awful some of the bodies were mere skeletons it seems so very different to see each side near each other s trenches burying their dead each man taking part in this ceremony is called a pioneer and wears 2 white bands on his arms everybody is taking advantage of the armistice to do anything they want to do out of cover and a large number are down bathing and you would think today was Cup Day down at one of our seaside beaches 133 The truce was not repeated formally 132 Esat Pasha delivering orders to the batteries at Anzac Cove The British advantage in naval artillery diminished after the battleship HMS Goliath was torpedoed and sunk on 13 May by the Ottoman destroyer Muavenet i Milliye killing 570 men out of a crew of 750 including the ship s commander Captain Thomas Shelford 134 A German submarine U 21 sank HMS Triumph on 25 May and HMS Majestic on 27 May 135 More British reconnaissance patrols were flown around Gallipoli and U 21 was forced to leave the area but ignorant of this the Allies withdrew most of their warships to Imbros where they were protectively tethered between sorties which greatly reduced Allied naval firepower particularly in the Helles sector 136 The submarine HMS E11 Lieutenant Commander Martin Nasmith later awarded a Victoria Cross passed through the Dardanelles on 18 May and sank or disabled eleven ships including three on 23 May before entering Constantinople Harbour firing on a transport alongside the arsenal sinking a gunboat and damaging the wharf 137 138 139 The Ottoman forces lacked artillery ammunition and field batteries were only able to fire c 18 000 shells between early May and the first week of June 140 After the defeat of the counter attack at Anzac in mid May the Ottoman forces ceased frontal assaults Late in the month the Ottomans began tunneling around Quinn s Post in the Anzac sector and early in the morning of 29 May despite Australian counter mining detonated a mine and attacked with a battalion from the 14th Regiment The Australian 15th Battalion was forced back but counter attacked and recaptured the ground later in the day before being relieved by New Zealand troops Operations at Anzac in early June returned to consolidation minor engagements and skirmishing with grenades and sniper fire 141 Operations June July 1915 Edit Troops of the 29th Indian Brigade in trenches at Gallipoli 1915 In the Helles sector which had been extensively entrenched by both sides the Allies attacked Krithia and Achi Baba again in the Third Battle of Krithia on 4 June with the 29th Division Royal Naval Division 42nd Division and two French divisions 142 The attack was repulsed and with it the possibility of a decisive breakthrough ended trench warfare resumed with objectives being measured in hundreds of yards Casualties were approximately 25 percent on both sides the British lost 4 500 from 20 000 men and the French 2 000 casualties from 10 000 troops Ottoman losses were 9 000 casualties according to the Turkish Official History and 10 000 according to another account 143 French gunners with a 75 mm gun near Seddulbahir 1915 In June the seaplane carrier HMS Ben my Chree arrived and the Allied air effort increased from a squadron to No 3 Wing RNAS 144 The 52nd Lowland Division also landed at Helles in preparation for the Battle of Gully Ravine which began on 28 June and achieved a local success which advanced the British line along the left Aegean flank of the battlefield Sanders credited the defence to two Ottoman officers Faik Pasa and Albay Refet 140 On 30 June the French commander Henri Gouraud who had earlier replaced Albert d Amade was wounded and replaced by his divisional commander Maurice Bailloud 145 Between 1 and 5 July the Ottomans counter attacked the new British line several times but failed to regain the lost ground Ottoman casualties for the period were estimated at 14 000 men 146 On 12 July two fresh brigades from the 52nd Division attacked at the centre of the line along Achi Baba Nullah Bloody Valley gained very little ground and lost 2 500 casualties out of 7 500 men the Royal Naval Division had 600 casualties and French losses were 800 men Ottoman losses were about 9 000 casualties and 600 prisoners 147 At sea the submarine E14 made two voyages into the Marmara 137 The third tour began on 21 July when E14 passed through the straits despite a new anti submarine net placed near the Narrows 148 The next attempt was made by Mariotte on 27 July which was caught in the net forced to the surface and bombarded by shore batteries Mariotte was scuttled 149 On 8 August E11 torpedoed the battleship Barbaros Hayreddin with the loss of 253 men and sank a gunboat seven transports and 23 sailing vessels 150 151 152 August offensive Edit Main articles Battle of Sari Bair Battle of Krithia Vineyard Battle of Lone Pine Battle of Chunuk Bair Battle of the Nek Battle of Scimitar Hill and Battle of Hill 60 Gallipoli Australian light horseman using a periscope rifle The failure of the Allies to capture Krithia or make any progress on the Helles front led Hamilton to form a new plan to secure the Sari Bair Range of hills at the Battle of Sari Bair and capture high ground on Hill 971 in the Battle of Chunuk Bair 153 Both sides had been reinforced the original five Allied divisions having been increased to fifteen and first six Ottoman divisions to sixteen 154 155 The Allies planned to land two fresh infantry divisions from IX Corps at Suvla 5 mi 8 0 km north of Anzac followed by an advance on Sari Bair from the north west 156 157 At Anzac an offensive would be made against the Sari Bair range by advancing through rough and thinly defended terrain north of the Anzac perimeter This would be achieved by an attack on Baby 700 from the Nek by dismounted Australian light horsemen from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade in concert with an attack on Chunuk Bair summit by New Zealanders from the New Zealand Infantry Brigade who would traverse Rhododendron Ridge the Apex and the Farm Hill 971 would be attacked by Gurkhas of the 29th Indian Brigade and the Australians of the 4th Infantry Brigade 157 The Allies had 40 aircraft mainly from 3 Wing RNAS at Imbros which had replaced its Voisins with Farmans and Nieuport Xs Escadrille MF98T had also been established at Tenedos 158 The Ottomans had 20 aircraft of which eight were stationed at Canakkale Allied aircraft made reconnaissance flights spotted for naval guns and conducted low level bombing of Ottoman reserves as they were brought up to the battlefield 144 Allied aircraft also undertook anti shipping operations in the Gulf of Saros where a seaplane from HMS Ben my Chree sank an Ottoman tug with an air launched torpedo 159 Gurkha Rifles of the 29th Indian Brigade in bivouacs Gallipoli 1915 The landing at Suvla Bay took place on the night of 6 August against light opposition the British commander Lieutenant General Frederick Stopford had limited his early objectives and then failed to forcefully push his demands for an advance inland and little more than the beach was seized The Ottomans were able to occupy the Anafarta Hills preventing the British from penetrating inland which contained the landings and reduced the Suvla front to static trench warfare 160 The offensive was preceded on the evening of 6 August by diversions at Helles where the Battle of Krithia Vineyard became another costly stalemate At Anzac the diversionary Battle of Lone Pine led by the Australian 1st Infantry Brigade captured the main Ottoman trench line and diverted Ottoman forces but the attacks at Chunuk Bair and Hill 971 failed 80 161 162 Captain Leslie Morshead in a trench at Lone Pine after the battle looking at Australian and Ottoman dead on the parapet The New Zealand Infantry Brigade came within 500 m 550 yd of the near peak of Chunuk Bair by dawn on 7 August but was not able to seize the summit until the following morning 163 On the morning of 7 August the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade attacked on a narrow front at the Nek to coincide with the New Zealand attack from Chunuk Bair against the rear of the Ottoman defences The opening artillery barrage lifted seven minutes too soon which alerted the Ottomans and the attack was a costly failure 164 An attack on Hill 971 never took place after the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade and an Indian brigade lost direction during the night Attempts to resume the attack were easily repulsed by the Ottoman defenders at great cost to the Allies 165 The New Zealanders held out on Chunuk Bair for two days before being relieved by two New Army battalions from the Wiltshire and Loyal North Lancashire Regiments but an Ottoman counterattack on 10 August led by Mustafa Kemal swept them from the heights 163 Of 760 men in the New Zealand Wellington Battalion who reached the summit 711 became casualties 166 With the Ottoman recapture of the ground the Allies best chance of victory was lost 165 The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the 10th Irish Division on 7 August the 53rd Welsh Division which began landing on 8 August the 54th East Anglian Division arriving late on 10 August and the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division on 18 August 167 On 12 August the 54th Division attacked Kavak Tepe and Tekke Tepe crossing the Anafarta Plain The attack failed and Hamilton briefly considered the evacuation of Suvla and Anzac 168 d Australian troops charging an Ottoman trench just before the evacuation at Anzac Elements of the new Australian 2nd Division began arriving at Anzac from Egypt with the 5th Infantry Brigade landing from 19 20 August and the 6th Brigade and 7th Brigade arriving in early September 169 170 The 29th Division was also shifted from Helles to Suvla The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August in the Battle of Scimitar Hill and the Battle of Hill 60 Control of the hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts but the attacks failed On 17 August Hamilton had requested another 95 000 troops but a day earlier the French had announced plans to Kitchener for an autumn offensive in France A meeting of the Dardanelles Committee on 20 August determined that the French offensive would be supported by a maximum effort which left only about 25 000 reinforcements for the Dardanelles On 23 August after news of the failure at Scimitar Hill Hamilton went onto the defensive as Bulgarian entry into the war which would allow the Germans to rearm the Turkish army was imminent and left little opportunity for the resumption of offensive operations On 20 September 1915 the Newfoundland Regiment was deployed at Suvla Bay with the 29th Division 171 On 25 September Kitchener proposed detaching two British and one French division for service in Salonika in Greece which was the beginning of the end of the Allied campaign at Gallipoli Instead a counter proposal from Sir Ian Hamilton was agreed to only the 10th Irish Division and the 156th Infantry Division France were withdrawn from the peninsula By the end of September these troops were concentrating at Mudros for conveyance to the new front 172 Alan Moorehead wrote that during the stalemate an old Ottoman batman was regularly permitted to hang his platoon s washing on the barbed wire undisturbed and that there was a constant traffic of gifts being thrown across no man s land dates and sweets from the Ottoman side and cans of beef and packs of cigarettes from the Allied side 173 Conditions at Gallipoli grew worse for everyone as summer heat and poor sanitation resulted in an explosion in the fly population Eating became extremely difficult as unburied corpses became bloated and putrid The precarious Allied lodgements were poorly situated which caused supply and shelter problems A dysentery epidemic spread through the Allied trenches at Anzac and Helles while the Ottomans also suffered heavily from disease which resulted in many deaths 174 Evacuation Edit After the failure of the August Offensive the Gallipoli campaign drifted Ottoman success began to affect public opinion in Britain with criticism of Hamilton s performance being smuggled out by Keith Murdoch Ellis Ashmead Bartlett and other reporters 175 Stopford and other dissident officers also contributed to the air of gloom and the possibility of evacuation was raised on 11 October 1915 Hamilton resisted the suggestion fearing the damage to British prestige but was sacked shortly afterwards and replaced by Lieutenant General Sir Charles Monro 176 Autumn and winter brought relief from the heat but also led to gales blizzards and flooding resulting in men drowning and freezing to death while thousands suffered frostbite 177 The Serbian defeat in the Serbian campaign in autumn 1915 prompted France and Britain to transfer troops from the Gallipoli campaign to Greek Macedonia the Macedonian front was established to support the remnants of the Serbian army to conquer Vardar Macedonia 178 Troops from the Royal Irish Fusiliers serving in Gallipoli in Autumn 1915 On 4 September the submarine HMS E7 was caught in the Ottoman anti submarine net as it began another tour 179 Despite such reverses by mid September Allied nets and mines had closed the eastern entrance to the Dardanelles to German U boats and U 21 was thwarted when it tried to pass the straits to Istanbul on 13 September 180 The first French submarine to enter the Sea of Marmara was Turquoise but it was forced to turn back on 30 October when returning through the straits it ran aground beneath a fort and was captured intact The crew of 25 were taken prisoner and documents detailing planned Allied operations were discovered including a scheduled rendezvous with HMS E20 on 6 November The rendezvous was kept by the German U boat U 14 instead which torpedoed and sank E20 killing all but nine of the crew 181 The situation at Gallipoli was complicated by Bulgaria joining the Central Powers In early October 1915 the British and French opened a second Mediterranean front at Salonika by moving two divisions from Gallipoli and reducing the flow of reinforcements 182 A land route between Germany and the Ottoman Empire through Bulgaria was opened and the Germans rearmed the Ottomans with heavy artillery capable of devastating Allied trenches especially on the confined front at Anzac modern aircraft and experienced crews 183 184 In late November an Ottoman crew in a German Albatros C I shot down a French aircraft over Gaba Tepe and the Austro Hungarian 36 Haubitzbatterie and 9 Motormorserbatterie artillery units arrived providing a substantial reinforcement of the Ottoman artillery 184 3 185 Monro recommended evacuation to Kitchener who in early November visited the eastern Mediterranean 175 After consulting with the commanders of VIII Corps at Helles IX Corps at Suvla and Anzac Kitchener agreed with Monro and passed his recommendation to the British Cabinet who confirmed the decision to evacuate in early December 186 Due to the narrowness of no man s land and the winter weather many casualties were anticipated during the embarkation The untenable nature of the Allied position was made apparent by a rainstorm on 26 November 1915 The downpour at Suvla lasted for three days and there was a blizzard in early December Rain flooded trenches drowned soldiers and washed unburied corpses into the lines the following snow killed still more men from exposure 187 Suvla and Anzac were to be evacuated in late December the last troops leaving before dawn on 20 December Troop numbers had been slowly reduced since 7 December and ruses such as William Scurry s self firing rifle which had been rigged to fire by water dripped into a pan attached to the trigger were used to disguise the Allied departure 188 At Anzac Cove troops maintained silence for an hour or more until curious Ottoman troops ventured to inspect the trenches whereupon the Anzacs opened fire This incident successfully discouraged the Ottomans from inspecting when the actual evacuation occurred A mine was detonated at the Nek which killed 70 Ottoman soldiers 189 The Allied force was embarked with the Australians suffering no casualties on the final night but large quantities of supplies and stores fell into Ottoman hands 190 191 192 W Beach Helles on 7 January 1916 just prior to the final evacuation Helles was retained for a period but a decision to evacuate the garrison was made on 28 December 193 Unlike the evacuation from Anzac Cove Ottoman forces were looking for signs of withdrawal 191 Having used the interval to bring up reinforcements and supplies Sanders mounted an attack on the British at Gully Spur on 7 January 1916 with infantry and artillery but the attack was a costly failure 194 Mines were laid with time fuzes and that night and on the night of 7 8 January under the cover of a naval bombardment the British troops began to fall back 5 mi 8 0 km from their lines to the beaches where makeshift piers were used to board boats 191 195 The last British troops departed from Lancashire Landing around 04 00 on 8 January 1916 194 The Newfoundland Regiment was part of the rearguard and withdrew on 9 January 1916 196 Among the first to land remnants of The Plymouth Battalion Royal Marine Light Infantry were the last to leave the Peninsula 197 Despite predictions of up to 30 000 casualties 35 268 troops 3 689 horses and mules 127 guns 328 vehicles and 1 600 long tons 1 600 t of equipment were removed 195 508 mules that could not be embarked were killed so as not to fall into Ottoman hands and 1 590 vehicles were left behind with smashed wheels 198 As at Anzac large amounts of supplies including 15 British and six French unserviceable artillery pieces which were destroyed gun carriages and ammunition were left behind hundreds of horses were slaughtered to deny them to the Ottomans A sailor was killed by debris from a magazine that exploded prematurely and a lighter and a picket boat were lost 199 Shortly after dawn the Ottomans retook Helles 194 In the final days of the campaign Ottoman air defences had been increased by a German Ottoman fighter squadron which began operations over the peninsula and inflicted the first British flying losses a couple of days after the evacuation of Helles when three Fokker Eindeckers shot down two RNAS aircraft 184 Aftermath EditMilitary repercussions Edit See also Operation Hush Respect to Mehmetcik Monument Anzac soldier injured in the arms of Turkish troops Historians are divided about how they summarise the campaign s result Broadbent describes the campaign as a close fought affair that was a defeat for the Allies 200 while Carlyon views the overall result as a stalemate 201 Peter Hart disagrees arguing that the Ottoman forces held the Allies back from their real objectives with relative ease 191 while Haythornthwaite calls it a disaster for the Allies 202 The campaign did cause enormous damage to Ottoman national resources 202 and at that stage of the war the Allies were in a better position to replace their losses than the Ottomans 190 but ultimately the Allied attempt at securing a passage through the Dardanelles proved unsuccessful While it diverted Ottoman forces away from other areas of conflict in the Middle East the campaign also consumed resources the Allies could have employed on the Western Front 203 and also resulted in heavy losses on the Allied side 202 The Allied campaign was plagued by ill defined goals poor planning insufficient artillery inexperienced troops inaccurate maps poor intelligence overconfidence inadequate equipment and logistical and tactical deficiencies at all levels 204 205 Geography also proved a significant factor While the Allied forces possessed inaccurate maps and intelligence and proved unable to exploit the terrain to their advantage the Ottoman commanders were able to utilise the high ground around the Allied landing beaches to position well sited defences that limited the ability of Allied forces to penetrate inland confining them to narrow beaches 53 The campaign s necessity remains the subject of debate 80 and the recriminations that followed were significant highlighting the schism that had developed between military strategists who felt the Allies should focus on fighting on the Western Front and those who favoured trying to end the war by attacking Germany s soft underbelly its allies in the east 206 British and French submarine operations in the Sea of Marmara were the one significant area of success of the Gallipoli campaign forcing the Ottomans to abandon the sea as a transport route Between April and December 1915 nine British and four French submarines carried out 15 patrols sinking one battleship one destroyer five gunboats 11 troop transports 44 supply ships and 148 sailing vessels at a cost of eight Allied submarines sunk in the strait or in the Sea of Marmara 207 During the campaign there was always one British submarine in the Sea of Marmara sometimes two in October 1915 there were four Allied submarines in the region 118 E2 left the Sea of Marmara on 2 January 1916 the last British submarine in the region Four E class and five B class submarines remained in the Mediterranean Sea following the evacuation of Helles 208 By this time the Ottoman navy had been all but forced to cease operations in the area while merchant shipping had also been significantly curtailed The official German naval historian Admiral Eberhard von Mantey later concluded that had the sea lanes of communication been completely severed the Ottoman 5th Army would likely have faced catastrophe As it was these operations were a source of significant anxiety posing a constant threat to shipping and causing heavy losses effectively dislocating Ottoman attempts to reinforce their forces at Gallipoli and shelling troop concentrations and railways 209 Gallipoli marked the end for Hamilton and Stopford but Hunter Weston went on to lead VIII Corps on the first day of the Battle of the Somme 210 211 The competence of Australian brigade commanders John Monash 4th Infantry Brigade and Harry Chauvel 1st Light Horse Brigade New Zealand and Australian Division was recognised by promotion to divisional and corps command 212 213 The influence of Kitchener waned after the coalition government was formed in May 1915 partly because of the growing sense of failure in the Dardanelles and culminated in Kitchener being over ruled on support for the French at Salonika in early December 1915 when his influence on the Cabinet was at its lowest 214 The campaign gave confidence to the Ottomans in their ability to defeat the Allies 205 In Mesopotamia the Turks surrounded a British expedition at Kut Al Amara forcing their surrender in April 1916 215 Ottoman forces in southern Palestine were poised to launch an attack against the Suez Canal and Egypt 216 Defeat at the Battle of Romani and lack of the materials to complete the military railway necessary for such an operation marked the end of that ambition 217 The optimism gained from the victory at Gallipoli was replaced by a gathering sense of despair and the British remained on the offensive in the Middle East for the rest of the war 218 219 The Sphinx one of the battlefield s most distinctive physical landmarks The lessons of the campaign were studied by military planners prior to amphibious operations such as the Normandy Landings in 1944 and during the Falklands War in 1982 220 48 The lessons of the campaign influenced US Marine Corps amphibious operations during the Pacific War and continue to influence US amphibious doctrine 220 221 In 1996 Theodore Gatchel wrote that between the wars the campaign became a focal point for the study of amphibious warfare in Britain and United States 221 In 2008 Glenn Wahlert wrote that Gallipoli involved all four types of amphibious operations the raid demonstration assault and withdrawal 220 Russell Weigley wrote that analysis of the campaign before the Second World War led to a belief among most of the armed forces of the world that amphibious assaults could not succeed against modern defences and that despite landings in Italy Tarawa and the Gilberts arguably this perception continued until Normandy in June 1944 222 Hart wrote that despite the pessimistic analyses after 1918 the situation after 1940 meant that landings from the sea were unavoidable and it was only after Normandy that the belief that opposed landings were futile was overcome 223 The memory of Gallipoli weighed upon the Australians during the planning of the Huon Peninsula campaign in late 1943 In September the Australians made their first opposed amphibious landing since Gallipoli at the Battle of Finschhafen in New Guinea 224 The landing was hampered by navigational errors and troops came ashore on the wrong beaches but they had been trained according to the lessons of Gallipoli and quickly reorganised to push inland 225 Political effects Edit Political repercussions in Britain had begun during the battle Fisher resigned in May after bitter conflict with Churchill The crisis that followed after the Conservatives learned that Churchill would be staying forced the Prime Minister H H Asquith to end his Liberal Government and form a Coalition Government with the Conservative Party 226 The Asquith government responded to the disappointment and outrage over Gallipoli and Kut by establishing commissions of inquiry into both episodes which had done much to destroy its faltering reputation for competence 227 The Dardanelles Commission was set up to investigate the failure of the expedition the first report being issued in 1917 with the final report published in 1919 1 Following the failure of the Dardanelles expedition Sir Ian Hamilton commander of the MEF was recalled to London in October 1915 ending his military career 228 Churchill was demoted from First Lord of the Admiralty as a condition of Conservative entry to the coalition but remained in the Cabinet in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 229 Churchill resigned in November 1915 and left London for the Western Front where he commanded an infantry battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers early in 1916 229 230 Asquith was partly blamed for Gallipoli and other disasters and was overthrown in December 1916 when David Lloyd George proposed a war council under his authority with the Conservatives in the coalition threatening to resign unless the plan was implemented After failure to reach agreement Lloyd George and then Asquith resigned followed by Lloyd George becoming Prime Minister 231 Lloyd George formed a new government from which Churchill active again in the House of Commons from June 1916 was excluded because of Conservative opposition In the summer of 1917 Churchill was eventually appointed to the cabinet level post of Minister of Munitions but not to the War Cabinet 229 The final report of the Commission was issued in 1919 concluding that with the forces available success was dependent on the government giving priority to the expedition and leaving the British Expeditionary Force in France to make do The Commissioners found that Hamilton had been over optimistic from the beginning and had added to Stopford s difficulties on 8 August 1915 Hamilton emerged from the investigation more favourably than perhaps was justified partly because he made devious attempts to gain collusion from witnesses and obtain leaks from the deliberations of the Commission Hamilton was never given another army appointment 232 e Casualties Edit See also List of war cemeteries and memorials on the Gallipoli Peninsula Gallipoli casualties not including illness 7 234 235 236 237 Countries Dead Wounded MissingorPOW TotalOttomanEmpire 56 643 97 007 11 178 164 828United Kingdom 34 072 78 520 7 654 120 246France 9 798 17 371 27 169Australia 8 709 19 441 28 150New Zealand 2 721 4 752 7 473British India 1 358 3 421 4 779Newfoundland 49 93 142Total Allies 56 707 123 598 7 654 187 959Casualty figures for the campaign vary between sources but in 2001 Edward J Erickson wrote that in the Gallipoli Campaign over 100 000 men were killed including 56 000 68 000 Ottoman and around 53 000 British and French soldiers 7 Using the Ottoman Archives Erickson estimated that Ottoman casualties in the Gallipoli Campaign were 56 643 men died from all causes 97 007 troops were wounded or injured and 11 178 men went missing or were captured 12 In 2001 Carlyon gave figures of 43 000 British killed or missing including 8 709 Australians 238 In September 1915 Godley complained that too few of the recovered sick or wounded casualties from Gallipoli were being returned from Egypt and General John Maxwell replied that the appetite of the Dardanelles for men has been phenomenal and wicked 239 There were nearly 500 000 casualties during the campaign with the British History of the Great War listing losses including sick as 205 000 British 47 000 French and 251 000 Ottoman troops with some Turkish sic sources referring to 350 000 casualties 235 Ottoman casualties have been disputed and in 2001 Tim Travers gave casualty figures of 2 160 officers and 287 000 other ranks battle and non battle included among this may be 87 000 killed 240 15 Sanders estimated that the Ottomans suffered 218 000 casualties including 66 000 dead and that 42 000 wounded returned to duty 7 The New Zealand semi official history 1919 by Fred Waite estimated that 8 556 New Zealanders served at Gallipoli and contained an estimate of 251 000 Ottoman battle casualties including 86 692 dead 234 In 2000 McGibbon wrote that 2 721 New Zealanders had been killed about a quarter of those who had initially landed on the peninsula other estimates were 2 701 Pugsley or 2 779 Stowers 15 241 A 2019 study by New Zealand historians John Crawford and Matthew Buck arrived at a higher estimate for the numbers of New Zealand soldiers who served at Gallipoli over 16 000 perhaps 17 000 rather than earlier revised figures of 13 000 to 14 000 and the 1919 figure of 8 556 242 Sickness Edit Many soldiers became sick due to insanitary conditions especially from typhoid dysentery and diarrhoea Cecil Aspinall Oglander the British official historian reported that 90 000 British Empire soldiers were evacuated for illness during the campaign 235 7 A total of 145 154 British troops fell sick not counting Dominion or Indian troops of these 3 778 died exclusive of those evacuated The sick were transported from Gallipoli to hospitals in Egypt and Malta as quickly as possible as bases in the area of operations were insufficient Approximately 2 84 percent of men removed as non battle casualties died against 0 91 percent in France and Flanders The proportion of disease casualties to battle casualties was considerably higher in the Gallipoli campaign than it was on the campaigns of the Western Front 243 Aspinall Oglander gave the number of Ottoman troops evacuated sick as 64 440 7 The largest cause of non battle admissions to hospital for British troops was dysentery with 29 728 men infected and another 10 383 men having diarrhoea Other notable conditions were frostbite with 6 602 hospitalisations gonorrhea 1 774 cases and rheumatic fever 6 556 cases 244 French casualties during the campaign amounted to around 47 000 245 246 235 Of the French casualties 27 169 were killed wounded or missing with an implied 20 000 who fell sick 237 f Allegations were made that Allied forces had attacked or bombarded Ottoman hospitals and hospital ships on several occasions between the start of the campaign and September 1915 By July 1915 25 Ottoman hospitals had been built with 10 700 beds and three hospital ships were in the area The French Government disputed these complaints through the Red Cross and the British responded that if it happened then it was accidental Russia in turn claimed that the Ottomans had attacked two of their hospital ships Portugal and Vperiod but the Ottoman Government replied that the vessels had been the victims of mines 247 No chemical weapons were used at Gallipoli although the Allies debated their use throughout the campaign and transported to the theatre quantities of gas which was used against Ottoman troops in the Middle Eastern theatre two years later during the Second Battle of Gaza and the Third Battle of Gaza in 1917 248 249 g Graves and memorials Edit Greek children standing by the bones of soldiers they have collected who died during the 1915 Gallipoli campaign on Hill 60 Anzac Cove in 1919 The Commonwealth War Graves Commission CWGC is responsible for permanent cemeteries for all Commonwealth of Nations forces There are 31 CWGC cemeteries on the Gallipoli peninsula six at Helles plus the only solitary grave that of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Doughty Wylie VC Royal Welch Fusiliers four at Suvla and 21 at Anzac 253 For many of those killed or died on hospital ships and were buried at sea there is no known grave their names are recorded on one of five memorials to the missing The Lone Pine Memorial commemorates Australians killed in the Anzac sector as well as New Zealanders with no known grave or who were buried at sea while the Lone Pine Hill 60 and Chunuk Bair memorials commemorate New Zealanders killed at Anzac The Twelve Tree Copse Memorial commemorates the New Zealanders killed in the Helles sector while British Indian and Australian troops who died there are commemorated on the Helles Memorial at Cape Helles British naval casualties who were lost or buried at sea are listed on memorials in the United Kingdom 254 255 12 May 1925 Unveiling of Chunuk Bair Memorial There are three more CWGC cemeteries on the Greek island of Lemnos the first one for the 352 Allied soldiers in Portianou the second one for the 148 Australian and 76 New Zealand soldiers in the town of Moudros and the third one for the Ottoman soldiers 170 Egyptian and 56 Turkish soldiers 256 Lemnos was the hospital base for the Allied forces and most of the buried were among the men who died of their wounds 257 258 Makeshift graves were created during the campaign often with simple wooden crosses or markers some graves were decorated more extensively 259 260 261 There is a French cemetery on the Gallipoli Peninsula located at Seddulbahir 262 There are no large Ottoman Turkish military cemeteries on the peninsula but there are numerous memorials the main ones being the Canakkale Martyrs Memorial at Morto Bay Cape Helles near S Beach the Turkish Soldier s Memorial on Chunuk Bair and the memorial and open air mosque for the 57th Regiment near Quinn s Post Bomba Sirt There are a number of memorials and cemeteries on the Asian shore of the Dardanelles demonstrating the greater emphasis that Turkish historians place on the victory of 18 March over the subsequent fighting on the peninsula 263 Subsequent operations Edit Allied troops were withdrawn to Lemnos and then to Egypt 264 French forces renamed the Corps Expeditionnaire des Dardanelles in late October were subsumed into the Army of the Orient and later employed at Salonika 265 266 In Egypt the British Imperial and Dominion troops from the Dardanelles along with fresh divisions from the United Kingdom and those at Salonika became the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force MEF commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Archibald Murray They joined the Force in Egypt to become the strategic reserve for the British Empire consisting of 13 infantry and mounted divisions with 400 000 men In March 1916 Murray took command of both these forces forming them into the new Egyptian Expeditionary Force EEF and reorganising the units for service in Europe Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle East 267 268 269 While the ANZAC was disbanded the AIF was expanded with three new Australian divisions being raised and a New Zealand Division was also formed These units moved to the Western Front in mid 1916 190 Gallipoli campaign epitaph at Lone Pine Cemetery The British yeomanry units that had fought dismounted at Gallipoli were reinforced and reorganised 270 271 forming the 74th Yeomanry Division and a portion of the 75th Division 272 273 Along with the Australian Light Horsemen and New Zealand Mounted Rifles remounted and reorganised into the Anzac Mounted Division infantry from the 52nd Lowland Division 42nd East Lancashire Division 274 53rd Welsh Division and 54th East Anglian Division 275 276 later joined by additional remounted Australian Light Horsemen and British yeomanry from the Australian Mounted Division 277 participated in the Sinai and Palestine campaign The Egyptian Sinai was reoccupied in 1916 while Palestine and the northern Levant were captured from the Ottoman Empire during 1917 and 1918 before the Armistice of Mudros ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre on 31 October The Allies subsequently occupied Gallipoli and Istanbul and partitioned the Ottoman Empire 278 The occupation ended in 1923 following the Turkish War of Independence the Armistice of Mudanya and the Treaty of Lausanne 279 Legacy EditMain article Gallipoli Peninsula Historical Site The significance of the Gallipoli campaign is felt strongly in both Australia and New Zealand despite their being only a portion of the Allied forces the campaign is regarded in both nations as a baptism of fire and had been linked to their emergence as independent states 280 Approximately 50 000 Australians served at Gallipoli and from 16 000 to 17 000 New Zealanders 281 282 283 284 It has been argued that the campaign proved significant in the emergence of a unique Australian identity following the war which has been closely linked to popular conceptualisations of the qualities of the soldiers that fought during the campaign which became embodied in the notion of an Anzac spirit 285 The landing on 25 April is commemorated every year in both countries as Anzac Day The first iteration was celebrated unofficially in 1916 at churches in Melbourne Brisbane and London before being officially recognised as a public holiday in all Australian states in 1923 253 The day also became a national holiday in New Zealand in the 1920s 286 Organised marches by veterans began in 1925 in the same year a service was held on the beach at Gallipoli two years later the first official dawn service took place at the Sydney Cenotaph During the 1980s it became popular for Australian and New Zealand tourists to visit Gallipoli to attend the dawn service there and since then thousands have attended 253 Over 10 000 people attended the 75th anniversary along with political leaders from Turkey New Zealand Britain and Australia 287 Dawn services are also held in Australia in New Zealand dawn services are the most popular form of observance of this day 288 Anzac Day remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in Australia and New Zealand surpassing Remembrance Day Armistice Day 289 The Canakkale Martyrs Memorial at Gallipoli Peninsula Historical Site commemorating the loss of Ottoman and Anzac soldiers on the Gallipoli Peninsula Anzac Day march in Wagga Wagga Australia in 2015 The Canakkale 1915 Bridge on the Dardanelles strait connecting Europe and Asia is the longest suspension bridge in the world 290 The Australian Turkish Friendship Memorial in Kings Domain Melbourne honours WWI fallen soldiers and is a tribute to Australian Turkish relationsAlong with memorials and monuments established in towns and cities many streets public places and buildings were named after aspects of the campaign especially in Australia and New Zealand 291 Some examples include Gallipoli Barracks at Enoggera in Queensland 292 and the Armed Forces Armoury in Corner Brook Newfoundland which is named the Gallipoli Armouries 293 Gallipoli also had a significant impact on popular culture including in film television and song 294 In 1971 Scottish born Australian folk singer songwriter Eric Bogle wrote a song called And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda which consisted of an account from a young Australian soldier who was maimed during the Gallipoli campaign The song has been praised for its imagery evoking the devastation at the Gallipoli landings It remains widely popular and is considered by some to be an iconic anti war song 295 296 In Turkey the battle is thought of as a significant event in the state s emergence although it is primarily remembered for the fighting that took place around the port of Canakkale where the Royal Navy was repulsed in March 1915 297 For the Turks 18 March has a similar significance as 25 April to Australians and New Zealanders it is not a public holiday but is commemorated with special ceremonies 298 The campaign s main significance to the Turkish people lies in the role it played in the emergence of Mustafa Kemal who became the first president of the Republic of Turkey after the war 299 Canakkale gecilmez Canakkale is impassable became a common phrase to express the state s pride at repulsing the attack and the song Canakkale icinde A Ballad for Chanakkale commemorates the Turkish youth who fell during the battle 300 Turkish filmmaker Sinan Cetin created a movie called Children of Canakkale 301 See also EditTimeline of the Gallipoli Campaign Gallipoli a 1981 Australian film directed by Peter Weir Canakkale 1915 a 2012 Turkish film based on some of the major political events of the Gallipoli campaign The Water Diviner a 2014 Australian film directed by Russell Crowe Gallipoli Star a military decoration of the Ottoman Empire And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda a 1971 song by Eric Bogle Gallipoli Art Prize awarded annually by the Gallipoli Memorial ClubNotes Edit Also known as the Dardanelles campaign the Defense of Gallipoli or the Battle of Gallipoli Turkish Gelibolu Muharebesi Canakkale Muharebeleri or Canakkale Savasi The operation would be complicated by having only five divisions the rugged terrain of the peninsula the small number of landing beaches and great difficulty in providing supplies 48 Later on the MEF was supported by about 2 000 civilian labourers from the Egyptian and Maltese Labour Corps 5 The 57th Regiment was not rebuilt and was not recreated in the Turkish Army 104 The events of the day later gained significance due to the loss of a company of the Norfolk Regiment Having been recruited from men who worked on King George V s Sandringham estate they were dubbed the Sandringham Company After being isolated and destroyed during 12 August attack it was rumoured that they had advanced into a mist and simply disappeared This gave rise to legends that they had been executed or that they had been taken by some supernatural force but some members were later found to have been taken prisoner 168 The enormous casualties at Gallipoli among Irish soldiers who had volunteered to fight in the British Army was a causal factor in the Irish War of Independence as balladeers sang Twas better to die neath an Irish sky than in Suvla or Sedd el Bahr 233 Appendix 5 of the French official history AFGG 8 1 has a one page table that not only splits these into subcategory columns but also breaks out the casualties into nine time period rows 237 For comparative purposes out of 205 000 British casualties 115 000 were killed missing and wounded 90 000 were evacuated sick 235 In November 1918 the Canterbury Mounted Rifles and the 7th Light Horse from the Anzac Mounted Division were sent to Gallipoli to monitor Turkish compliance with the terms of the Armistice 250 The 900 troopers camped at Camburnu near Kilid Bahr for three winter months and reconnoitred the Peninsula identifying graves and inspecting Ottoman positions 251 The troopers returned to Egypt on 19 January 1919 less 11 who had died and 110 who were sick in hospital 252 Footnotes Edit a b c Travers 2001 p 13 Rance 2017 pp 16 17 54 56 a b Jung 2003 pp 42 43 Kurtulus Savasi Komutanlari a b c d Aspinall Oglander 1929 p 395 Rance 2017 pp 16 17 44 47 55 56 a b c d e f g h i Erickson 2001a p 94 a b Erickson 2001a pp 94 95 Erickson 2015 p 178 Rance 2017 pp 16 17 a b c d Clodfelter 2017 p 417 a b c Erickson 2001a p 327 Dennis 2008 pp 32 38 Lewis Balderstone amp Bowan 2006 p 110 a b c McGibbon 2000 p 198 Fewster Basarin amp Basarin 2003 p 44 Broadbent 2005 pp 19 23 Baldwin 1962 p 40 Erickson 2013 p 159 Tauber 1993 pp 22 25 Dennis 2008 p 224 Corbett 2009a pp 158 166 Haythornthwaite 2004 p 6 Carlyon 2001 p 34 Strachan 2001 p 115 Broadbent 2005 pp 27 28 Tamworth Daily Observer 1915 p 2 Travers 2001 p 20 a b c d e Broadbent 2005 p 40 Gilbert 2013 pp 42 43 Hart 2013a pp 9 10 Hart 2013a p 10 Hart 2013a pp 11 12 a b Fromkin 1989 p 135 a b c Baldwin 1962 p 60 James 1995 p 61 Hart 2013a p 12 Fromkin 1989 p 151 Broadbent 2005 pp 33 34 a b Broadbent 2005 p 35 Wahlert 2008 p 15 Stevens 2001 pp 44 45 History com 2017 Grey 2008 p 92 Haythornthwaite 2004 p 25 Wahlert 2008 p 16 Doyle amp Bennett 1999 p 14 a b Holmes 2001 p 343 McGibbon 2000 p 191 Haythornthwaite 2004 p 21 Reagan 1992 p 166 Erickson 2001b p 983 a b c Doyle amp Bennett 1999 p 12 Hart 2013b p 52 a b c d e Dennis 2008 p 226 Travers 2001 p 48 Hart 2013b p 54 Travers 2001 p 39 a b c Aspinall Oglander 1929 p 139 Carlyon 2001 p 100 Travers 2001 p 38 Carlyon 2001 p 83 Haythornthwaite 2004 p 16 Carlyon 2001 p 31 Butler 2011 p 121 Kinross 1995 pp 73 74 Bean 1941a p 179 James 1995 p 74 James 1995 p 75 Aspinall Oglander 1929 p 154 James 1995 p 76 ATASE Canakkale 2 p 46 56 57 Sevki Yazman Turk Canakkale p 100 Aspinall Oglander 1929 pp 154 57 a b James 1995 p 77 Broadbent 2005 p 42 Gilbert 2013 p 46 Broadbent 2005 p 43 Broadbent 2005 p 47 a b c Stevenson 2007 p 189 Broadbent 2005 p 45 Broadbent 2005 p 108 Life 1942 p 28 McGibbon 2000 p 195 Travers 2001 pp 50 53 Travers 2001 p 72 a b c d Gilbert 2013 p 43 a b c d e Coulthard Clark 2001 p 102 Ozakman 2008 pp 226 230 Ozakman 2008 pp 235 236 Ozakman 2008 pp 300 304 Dennis 2008 p 227 Dennis 2008 pp 227 28 a b c Dennis 2008 p 228 a b c d e f g Stevens 2001 p 45 Jose 1941 p 242 Frame 2004 p 119 a b c Stevens 2001 p 46 Broadbent 2005 p 44 Aspinall Oglander 1929 pp 315 16 Wahlert 2008 p 19 Broadbent 2005 p 102 Aspinall Oglander 1929 pp 232 36 a b Erickson 2001a p xv Erickson 2001a p 84 Aspinall Oglander 1929 p 318 Carlyon 2001 p 232 Thys Senocak amp Aslan 2008 p 30 Perrett 2004 p 192 Broadbent 2005 p 121 Broadbent 2005 pp 122 23 Broadbent 2005 pp 124 25 Broadbent 2005 pp 126 129 134 Broadbent 2005 pp 129 30 Pitt amp Young 1970 pp 918 19 McCartney 2008 p 31 Usborne 1933 p 327 a b O Connell 2010 p 73 Broadbent 2005 p 134 Broadbent 2005 pp 131 136 Broadbent 2005 p 137 a b Broadbent 2005 pp 137 42 Broadbent 2005 p 143 a b Grey 2008 p 96 Broadbent 2005 p 148 Broadbent 2005 p 149 Crawford amp Buck 2020 p 28 a b c Erickson 2001a p 87 Broadbent 2005 p 154 Bean 1941b p 161 Broadbent 2005 pp 149 50 a b Broadbent 2005 pp 156 57 Laidlaw Private Victor Diaries of Private Victor Rupert Laidlaw 1914 1984 manuscript State Library of Victoria Retrieved 18 May 2020 Burt 1988 pp 158 59 Burt 1988 pp 131 276 Broadbent 2005 p 165 a b Brenchley amp Brenchley 2001 p 113 O Connell 2010 p 74 Pitt amp Young 1970 p 918 a b Erickson 2001a p 89 Broadbent 2005 pp 169 70 Broadbent 2005 p 170 Aspinall Oglander 1992 pp 46 53 a b Gilbert 2013 p 44 Haythornthwaite 2004 p 15 Aspinall Oglander 1992 p 95 Aspinall Oglander 1992 p 111 Snelling 1995 p 103 Willmott 2009 p 387 Halpern 1995 p 119 Hore 2006 p 66 O Connell 2010 p 76 Broadbent 2005 p 190 Carlyon 2001 p 344 Travers 2001 pp 271 73 Grey 2008 p 95 a b Broadbent 2005 p 191 Ferreira Sylvain 11 November 2015 11 mai l escadrille MF 98 T est operationnelle Dardanelles 1915 2015 LE CORPS EXPEDITIONNAIRE D ORIENT in French Retrieved 31 August 2020 As indicated by the initials of the squadron MF they were equipped with eight MF 9 aircraft Haythornthwaite 2004 p 83 Aspinall Oglander 1992 p 273 Ekins 2009 p 29 Fewster Basarin amp Basarin 2003 p 112 a b McGibbon 2000 p 197 Coulthard Clark 2001 p 109 a b Coulthard Clark 2001 p 110 Carlyon 2001 p 442 Aspinall Oglander 1992 pp 248 286 312 13 a b Broadbent 2005 p 232 Cameron 2011 p 17 Cameron 2011 p 147 Nicholson 2007 pp 155 92 Aspinall Oglander 1992 p 376 Moorehead 1997 p 158 Carlyon 2001 p 314 a b Wahlert 2008 p 26 Broadbent 2005 pp 244 45 Carlyon 2001 p 515 Hall 2010 pp 48 50 Pitt amp Young 1970 p 919 O Connell 2010 p 77 O Connell 2010 pp 76 77 Hart 2013b p 387 Broadbent 2005 pp 249 252 a b c Gilbert 2013 p 47 Ben Gavriel 1999 p 258 Broadbent 2005 pp 188 191 254 Broadbent 2005 pp 255 56 Broadbent 2005 p 260 Travers 2001 p 208 a b c Grey 2008 p 98 a b c d Hart 2007 p 12 Erickson 2001a p 93 Carlyon 2001 p 526 a b c Broadbent 2005 p 266 a b Parker 2005 p 126 Nicholson 2007 p 480 Lockhart 1950 p 17 Aspinall Oglander 1992 p 478 Corbett 2009b p 255 Broadbent 2005 pp 268 269 Carlyon 2001 p 518 a b c Haythornthwaite 2004 p 90 Doyle amp Bennett 1999 p 15 Hart 2007 pp 11 12 a b Broadbent 2005 p 268 Hart 2007 p 10 O Connell 2010 pp 76 78 O Connell 2010 p 78 Brenchley amp Brenchley 2001 pp 113 14 Broadbent 2005 pp 233 270 Neillands 2004 p 259 Grey 2008 pp 100 107 Haythornthwaite 2004 p 14 Cassar 2004 pp 202 203 259 263 Baldwin 1962 p 94 Pick 1990 pp 181 209 Pick 1990 p 210 Erickson 2001a p 127 Grey 2008 p 117 a b c Wahlert 2008 p 29 a b Gatchel 1996 p 10 Weigley 2005 pp 393 96 Hart 2013b pp 460 62 Coates 1999 p 70 Dexter 1961 p 454 Cassar 2004 p 180 Stevenson 2005 pp 121 22 Broadbent 2005 p 270 a b c Holmes 2001 p 203 Neillands 2004 p 384 Taylor 1965 pp 103 06 Travers 2001 pp 297 98 West 2016 p 97 a b NZ History 2016 a b c d e Aspinall Oglander 1992 p 484 Department of Veterans Affairs p 2 a b c Lepetit Tournyol du Clos amp Rinieri 1923 p 549 Carlyon 2001 p 531 Crawford amp Buck 2020 pp 83 111 Travers 2001 p 3 Crawford amp Buck 2020 p 100 Crawford amp Buck 2020 pp 110 111 Harrison 2010 p 296 Mitchell amp Smith 1931 p 206 Hughes 2005 p 64 Erickson 2001b p 1009 Taskiran 2005 Sheffy 2005 p 278 Falls amp MacMunn 1996 pp 336 37 341 349 Kinloch 2007 p 327 2nd Light Horse Brigade 1918 p 4 Powles amp Wilkie 1922 pp 263 65 a b c Wahlert 2008 p 9 Cape Helles Memorial Wahlert 2008 pp 9 10 Kirbaki 2015 Mudros Moslem Cemetery Portianos Military Cemetery Austin amp Duffy 2006 Dando Collins 2012 Newton 1925 Travers 2001 p 229 Wahlert 2008 p 10 Bean 1941b p 905 Dutton 1998 p 155 Hughes 2005 pp 64 67 Keogh amp Graham 1955 p 32 Wavell 1968 p 41 Gullett 1941 p 22 Perry 1988 p 23 Griffith 1998 pp 168 69 Keogh amp Graham 1955 pp 122 124 Becke 1937 p 121 Falls amp MacMunn 1996 pp 160 271 Grey 2008 pp 99 100 117 Dennis 2008 pp 405 07 Falls 1930 p 274 Holmes 2001 p 345 Simkins Jukes amp Hickey 2003 p 17 Williams 1999 p 260 Crawford amp Buck 2020 pp 8 117 Coulthard Clark 2001 p 103 Green 2013 Ministry for Culture and Heritage 2016 p 1 Dennis 2008 pp 37 42 Broadbent 2005 p 278 Fewster Basarin amp Basarin 2003 p 13 Anzac Day Today Dennis 2008 p 32 Groundbreaking ceremony for bridge over Dardanelles to take place on March 18 Hurriyet Daily News 17 March 2017 Retrieved 19 March 2017 Wilson Jobson 2009 p 103 CBC News 2012 Dennis 2008 pp 203 07 424 26 Dennis 2008 p 426 Keane 2015 Fewster Basarin amp Basarin 2003 pp 6 7 Fewster Basarin amp Basarin 2003 p 7 Fewster Basarin amp Basarin 2003 p 8 Eren 2003 p 5 Hammer 2017 References EditBooks Edit Aspinall Oglander Cecil Faber 1929 Military Operations Gallipoli Inception of the Campaign to May 1915 History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence Vol I 1st ed London Heinemann OCLC 464479053 Aspinall Oglander Cecil Faber 1992 1932 Military Operations Gallipoli May 1915 to the Evacuation History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence Vol II Imperial War Museum and Battery Press ed London Heinemann ISBN 978 0 89839 175 6 Austin Ronald Duffy Jack 2006 Where Anzacs Sleep the Gallipoli Photos of Captain Jack Duffy 8th Battalion Slouch Hat Publications Baldwin Hanson 1962 World War I An Outline History London Hutchinson OCLC 793915761 Bean Charles 1941a 1921 The Story of ANZAC from the Outbreak of War to the End of the First Phase of the Gallipoli Campaign May 4 1915 Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 1918 Vol I 11th ed Sydney Angus and Robertson OCLC 220878987 Bean Charles 1941b 1921 The Story of Anzac from 4 May 1915 to the Evacuation of the Gallipoli Peninsula Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 1918 Vol II 11th ed Canberra Australian War Memorial OCLC 39157087 Becke Major Archibald Frank 1937 Order of Battle of Divisions The 2nd Line Territorial Force Divisions 57th 69th with The Home Service Divisions 71st 73rd and 74th and 75th Divisions History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence Vol IIb London HMSO ISBN 978 1 871167 00 9 Ben Gavriel Moshe Ya aqov 1999 Wallas Armin A ed Tagebucher 1915 bis 1927 Diaries 1915 1927 in German Wien Bohlau ISBN 978 3 205 99137 3 Brenchley Fred Brenchley Elizabeth 2001 Stoker s Submarine Australia s Daring Raid on the Dardanellles on the Day of the Gallipoli Landing Sydney Harper Collins ISBN 978 0 7322 6703 2 Broadbent Harvey 2005 Gallipoli The Fatal Shore Camberwell VIC Viking Penguin ISBN 978 0 670 04085 8 Butler Daniel 2011 Shadow of the Sultan s Realm The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East Washington D C Potomac Books ISBN 978 1 59797 496 7 Burt R A 1988 British Battleships 1889 1904 Annapolis Maryland Naval Institute Press ISBN 978 0 87021 061 7 Cameron David 2011 Gallipoli The Final Battles and Evacuation of Anzac Newport NSW Big Sky ISBN 978 0 9808140 9 5 Carlyon Les 2001 Gallipoli Sydney Pan Macmillan ISBN 978 0 7329 1089 1 Cassar George H 2004 Kitchener s War British Strategy from 1914 to 1916 Lincoln Nebraska Potomac Books ISBN 978 1 57488 709 9 Clodfelter M 2017 Warfare and Armed Conflicts A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures 1492 2015 4th ed Jefferson North Carolina McFarland ISBN 978 0786474707 Coates John 1999 Bravery above Blunder The 9th Australian Division at Finschhafen Sattelberg and Sio South Melbourne Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 550837 6 Corbett J S 2009a 1920 Naval Operations History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence Vol I repr Imperial War Museum and Naval amp Military Press ed London Longmans ISBN 978 1 84342 489 5 Retrieved 27 May 2014 Corbett J S 2009b 1923 Naval Operations History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence Vol III Imperial War Museum and Naval amp Military Press ed London Longmans ISBN 978 1 84342 491 8 Retrieved 27 May 2014 Coulthard Clark Chris 2001 The Encyclopaedia of Australia s Battles Second ed Crow s Nest NSW Allen amp Unwin ISBN 978 1 86508 634 7 Cowan James 1926 The Maoris in the Great War including Gallipoli Auckland NZ Whitcombe amp Tombs for the Maori Regimental Committee OCLC 4203324 Crawford John Buck Matthew 2020 Phenomenal and Wicked Attrition and Reinforcements in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force at Gallipoli Wellington New Zealand Defence Force ISBN 978 0 478 34812 5 ebook New Zealand Defence Force 2020 Dando Collins Stephen 2012 Crack Hardy From Gallipoli to Flanders to the Somme the True Story of Three Australian Brothers at War North Sydney Vintage Books ISBN 978 1 74275 573 1 Dennis Peter Grey Jeffrey Morris Ewan Prior Robin Bou Jean 2008 The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History 2nd ed Melbourne Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 551784 2 Dexter David 1961 The New Guinea Offensives Australia in the War of 1939 1945 Series 1 Army Vol VII 1st ed Canberra ACT Australian War Memorial OCLC 2028994 Dutton David 1998 The Politics of Diplomacy Britain France and the Balkans in the First World War London I B Tauris ISBN 978 1 86064 112 1 Eren Ramazan 2003 Canakkale Savas Alanlari Gezi Gunlugu Canakkale War Zone Travel Diary in Turkish Canakkale Eren Books ISBN 978 975 288 149 5 Erickson Edward J 2001a 2000 Ordered to Die A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War Westport Connecticut Greenwood ISBN 978 0 313 31516 9 Erickson Edward J 2015 2010 Gallipoli the Ottoman Campaign Barnsley Pen amp Sword ISBN 978 1783461660 Erickson Edward J 2013 Ottomans and Armenians A Study in 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1989 A Peace to End All Peace The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East New York Henry Holt ISBN 978 0 8050 0857 9 Gatchel Theodore L 1996 At the Water s Edge Defending against the Modern Amphibious Assault Annapolis Maryland Naval Institute Press ISBN 978 1 55750 308 4 Grey Jeffrey 2008 A Military History of Australia 3rd ed Port Melbourne Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 69791 0 Griffith Paddy 1998 British Fighting Methods in the Great War London Routledge ISBN 978 0 7146 3495 1 Gullett Henry Somer 1941 1923 The Australian Imperial Force in Sinai and Palestine 1914 1918 Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 1918 Vol VII 10th ed Sydney Angus and Robertson OCLC 220901683 Hall Richard 2010 Balkan Breakthrough The Battle of Dobro Pole 1918 Bloomington Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 35452 5 Halpern Paul G 1995 A Naval History of World War I Annapolis Maryland Naval Institute Press ISBN 978 1 55750 352 7 Harrison Mark 2010 The Medical War British Military Medicine in the First World War Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19957 582 4 Hart Peter 2013b 2011 Gallipoli London Profile Books ISBN 978 1 84668 161 5 Hart Peter 2020 The Gallipoli Evacuation Sydney Living History ISBN 978 0 6489 2260 5 Haythornthwaite Philip 2004 1991 Gallipoli 1915 Frontal Assault on Turkey Campaign Series London Osprey ISBN 978 0 275 98288 1 Holmes Richard ed 2001 The Oxford Companion to Military History Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 866209 9 Hore Peter 2006 The Ironclads London Southwater ISBN 978 1 84476 299 6 James Robert Rhodes 1995 1965 Gallipoli A British Historian s View Parkville VIC Department of History University of Melbourne ISBN 978 0 7325 1219 4 Jobson Christopher 2009 Looking Forward Looking Back Customs and Traditions of the Australian Army Wavell Heights Queensland Big Sky ISBN 978 0 9803251 6 4 Jose Arthur 1941 1928 The Royal Australian Navy 1914 1918 Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 1918 Vol IX 9th ed Canberra Australian War Memorial OCLC 271462423 Jung Peter 2003 Austro Hungarian Forces in World War I Part 1 Oxford Osprey ISBN 978 1 84176 594 5 Keogh Eustace Graham Joan 1955 Suez to Aleppo Melbourne Directorate of Military Training Wilkie OCLC 220029983 Kinloch Terry 2007 Devils on Horses In the Words of the Anzacs in the Middle East 1916 19 Auckland NZ Exisle OCLC 191258258 Kinross Patrick 1995 1964 Ataturk The Rebirth of a Nation London Phoenix ISBN 978 0 297 81376 7 Lambert Nicholas A 2021 The War Lords and the Gallipoli Disaster Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 754520 1 Lepetit Vincent Tournyol du Clos Alain Rinieri Ilario 1923 Les armees francaises dans la Grande guerre Tome VIII La campagne d Orient Dardanelles et Salonique fevrier 1915 aout 1916 Ministry of War Staff of the Army Historical Service French Armies in the Great War Ministere De la Guerre Etat Major de l Armee Service Historique in French Vol I Paris Imprimerie Nationale OCLC 491775878 Lewis Wendy Balderstone Simon Bowan John 2006 Events That Shaped Australia Frenchs Forest NSW New Holland ISBN 978 1 74110 492 9 Lockhart Sir Robert Hamilton Bruce 1950 The Marines Were There The Story of the Royal Marines in the Second World War London Putnam OCLC 1999087 McCartney Innes 2008 British Submarines of World War I Oxford Osprey ISBN 978 1 84603 334 6 McGibbon Ian ed 2000 The Oxford Companion to New Zealand Military History Auckland NZ Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 558376 2 Mitchell Thomas John Smith G M 1931 Casualties and Medical Statistics of the Great War History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Committee of Imperial Defence London HMSO OCLC 14739880 Moorehead Alan 1997 1956 Gallipoli Ware Wordsworth ISBN 978 1 85326 675 1 Neillands Robin 2004 1998 The Great War Generals on the Western Front 1914 1918 London Books Magpie ISBN 978 1 84119 863 7 Newton L M 1925 The Story of the Twelfth A Record of the 12th Battalion A I F during the Great War of 1914 1918 Slouch Hat Publications Nicholson Gerald W L 2007 The Fighting Newfoundlander Carleton Library Series Vol CCIX McGill Queen s University Press ISBN 978 0 7735 3206 9 O Connell John 2010 Submarine Operational Effectiveness in the 20th Century 1900 1939 Part One New York Universe ISBN 978 1 4502 3689 8 Ozakman Turgut 2008 Dirilis Canakkale 1915 Ankara Bilgi Yayinev ISBN 978 975 22 0247 4 Parker John 2005 The Gurkhas The inside Story of the World s Most Feared Soldiers London Headline Books ISBN 978 0 7553 1415 7 Perrett Bryan 2004 For Valour Victoria Cross and Medal of Honor Battles London Cassel Military Paperbacks ISBN 978 0 304 36698 9 Perry Frederick 1988 The Commonwealth Armies Manpower and Organisation in Two World Wars Manchester Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 2595 2 Pick Walter Pinhas 1990 Meissner Pasha and the Construction of Railways in Palestine and Neighbouring Countries In Gilbar Gad ed Ottoman Palestine 1800 1914 Studies in Economic and Social History Leiden Brill Archive ISBN 978 90 04 07785 0 Pitt Barrie Young Peter 1970 History of the First World War Vol III London B P C OCLC 669723700 Powles C Guy Wilkie A 1922 The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine Official History New Zealand s Effort in the Great War Vol III Auckland NZ Whitcombe amp Tombs OCLC 2959465 Thys Senocak Lucienne Aslan Carolyn 2008 Narratives of Destruction and Construction The Complex Cultural Heritage of the Gallipoli Peninsula In Rakoczy Lila ed The Archaeology of Destruction Newcastle Cambridge Scholars pp 90 106 ISBN 978 1 84718 624 9 Rance Philip ed trans 2017 The Struggle for the Dardanelles Major Erich Prigge The Memoirs of a German Staff Officer in Ottoman Service Barnsley Pen amp Sword ISBN 978 1 78303 045 3 Reagan Geoffrey 1992 The Guinness Book of Military Anecdotes Enfield Guinness ISBN 978 0 85112 519 0 Simkins Peter Jukes Geoffrey Hickey Michael 2003 The First World War The War to End All Wars Oxford Osprey ISBN 978 1 84176 738 3 Snelling Stephen 1995 VCs of the First World War Gallipoli Thrupp Stroud Gloucestershire Sutton ISBN 978 0 905778 33 4 Strachan Hew 2003 2001 The First World War To Arms Vol I Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 926191 8 Stevens David 2001 The Royal Australian Navy The Australian Centenary History of Defence Vol III South Melbourne Victoria Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 555542 4 Stevenson David 2005 1914 1918 The History of the First World War London Penguin ISBN 978 0 14 026817 1 Taylor Alan John Percivale 1965 English History 1914 1945 Pelican 1982 ed Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 821715 2 Tauber Eliezer 1993 The Arab Movements in World War I London Routledge ISBN 978 0 7146 4083 9 Travers Tim 2001 Gallipoli 1915 Stroud Tempus ISBN 978 0 7524 2551 1 Usborne Cecil 1933 Smoke on the Horizon Mediterranean Fighting 1914 1918 London Hodder and Stoughton OCLC 221672642 Wahlert Glenn 2008 Exploring Gallipoli An Australian Army Battlefield Guide Australian Army Campaign Series Vol IV Canberra Army History Unit ISBN 978 0 9804753 5 7 Wavell Field Marshal Earl 1968 1933 The Palestine Campaigns In Sheppard Eric William ed A Short History of the British Army 4th ed London Constable OCLC 35621223 Weigley Russell F 2005 Normandy to Falaise A Critique of Allied Operational Planning in 1944 In Krause Michael D Phillips R Cody eds Historical Perspectives of the Operational Art Washington D C Center of Military History United States Army pp 393 414 OCLC 71603395 Archived from the original on 20 February 2014 Retrieved 12 November 2016 West Brad 2016 War Memory and Commemoration Memory Studies Global Constellations London and New York Routledge ISBN 978 1 47245 511 6 Williams John 1999 The ANZACS the Media and the Great War Sydney UNSW Press ISBN 978 0 86840 569 8 Willmott Hedley Paul 2009 The Last Century of Sea Power From Port Arthur to Chanak 1894 1922 Bloomington Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 00356 0 Diaries Edit Laidlaw Private Victor Diaries of Private Victor Rupert Laidlaw 1914 1984 State Library of Victoria Melbourne Australia manuscript Retrieved 19 May 2020 Newspapers Edit Blamey Boys Daily Advertiser New South Wales Australia 9 November 1939 p 3 Retrieved 28 April 2018 via National Library of Australia Death of Composer The News Vol 38 no 5 811 Adelaide 12 March 1942 p 3 Retrieved 29 April 2018 via National Library of Australia Jack Spade Wrote Hit And Vanished The Sunday Herald Sydney No 1 New South Wales Australia 23 January 1949 p 3 Retrieved 28 April 2018 via National Library of Australia Reason for Gallipoli The Tamworth Daily Observer Vol V no 253 New South Wales Australia 21 October 1915 p 2 Retrieved 25 April 2018 via National Library of Australia Journals Edit Doyle Peter Bennett Matthew 1999 Military Geography The Influence of Terrain in the Outcome of the Gallipoli Campaign 1915 The Geographical Journal London Royal Geographical Society 165 1 March 12 36 doi 10 2307 3060508 ISSN 0016 7398 JSTOR 3060508 Ekins Ashley 2009 Bloody Ridge The Assault of Lone Pine Wartime Canberra Australian War Memorial 47 12 14 16 18 ISSN 1328 2727 Erickson Edward 2001b Strength Against Weakness Ottoman Military Effectiveness at Gallipoli 1915 The Journal of Military History 65 4 981 1012 doi 10 2307 2677626 ISSN 1543 7795 JSTOR 2677626 Gilbert Greg 2013 Air War Over the Dardanelles Wartime Canberra Australian War Memorial 61 42 47 ISSN 1328 2727 Hart Peter 2007 War is Helles The Real Fight for Gallipoli Wartime Canberra Australian War Memorial 38 10 12 ISSN 1328 2727 Hart Peter 2013a The Day It All Went Wrong The Naval Assault Before the Gallipoli Landings Wartime Canberra Australian War Memorial 62 8 13 ISSN 1328 2727 Hughes Matthew 2005 The French Army at Gallipoli The RUSI Journal 153 3 64 67 doi 10 1080 03071840508522907 ISSN 0307 1847 S2CID 154727404 Sheffy Yigal 2005 The Chemical Dimension of the Gallipoli Campaign Introducing Chemical Warfare to the Middle East War in History Sage Publications 12 3 278 317 doi 10 1191 0968344505wh317oa ISSN 1477 0385 S2CID 154534581 Stevenson Robert 2007 The Forgotten First The 1st Australian Division in the Great War and its Legacy PDF Australian Army Journal IV 1 185 99 OCLC 30798241 Archived from the original PDF on 12 March 2017 Retrieved 1 July 2017 Websites Edit ANZAC Day 2010 The Gallipoli Campaign PDF Australian Department of Veterans Affairs Archived from the original PDF on 13 March 2013 Retrieved 8 April 2010 Anzac Day Today rsa org nz 4 January 2011 Archived from the original on 4 February 2012 AWM 4 10 2 47 2nd Light Horse Brigade War Diary November 1918 Appendix 3 pdf Headquarters 2nd Light Horse Brigade Retrieved 27 April 2013 Battle of Gallipoli World War I History com Retrieved 23 October 2017 Cape Helles Memorial to the Missing Commonwealth War Graves Commission Archived from the original on 12 July 2007 Retrieved 3 December 2006 Enumerating New Zealand Expeditionary Force Service on Gallipoli PDF Manatu Taonga the Ministry for Culture and Heritage Ministry for Culture and Heritage MCH and the New Zealand Defence Force NZDF 2016 Retrieved 21 March 2016 Gallipoli Casualties by Country NZ History New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage 1 March 2016 Retrieved 15 January 2017 ebook Phenomenal and Wicked Attrition and Reinforcements in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force at Gallipoli New Zealand Defence Force 2020 Green David 28 August 2013 How Many New Zealanders Served on Gallipoli Retrieved 26 November 2015 Hammer Joshua A New View of the Battle of Gallipoli One of the Bloodiest Conflicts of World War I Smithsonian Retrieved 23 October 2017 Keane Daniel 22 April 2015 Eric Bogle Australia s anti war balladeer reflects on his Anzac anthem and his upcoming trip to Gallipoli ABC News Australian Broadcasting Corporation Retrieved 11 October 2016 Kirbaki Yorgo 24 April 2015 Ottoman military graveyard found on Greek island off Gallipoli Hurriyet Daily News Retrieved 7 November 2017 Kurtulus Savasi Komutanlari canakkalesehitlik net 5 May 2015 Lead Contamination Closes Corner Brook Armoury CBC News 12 January 2012 Nazi Shell in Egypt Wounds One of British Empire s Most Fabulous Soldiers Life 17 August 1942 p 28 Retrieved 19 November 2011 Portianos Military Cemetery Commonwealth War Graves Commission Retrieved 28 April 2013 Taskiran Cemalettin 18 March 2005 Allied Attacks on Turkish Patients amp Wounded The Journal of the Turkish Weekly Archived from the original on 15 May 2015 Retrieved 2 December 2006 West Mudros Moslem Cemetery Commonwealth War Graves Commission Retrieved 28 April 2013 Wilson Ross Street Names The Local National and International Memory of the First World War World War I Centenary Continuations and Beginnings University of Oxford Retrieved 18 January 2017 Further reading EditBasarin Vecihi Basarin Hatice Hurmuz 2008 Beneath the Dardanelles The Australian Submarine at Gallipoli Crows Nest NSW Allen amp Unwin ISBN 978 1 74175 595 4 Baly Lindsay 2003 Horseman Pass By The Australian Light Horse in World War I East Roseville NSW Simon amp Schuster OCLC 223425266 Carlyon Les 11 November 2004 Australian War Memorial Anniversary Oration Gallipoli in a Nation s Remembrance soundtrack and text Australian War Memorial Archived from the original on 8 December 2004 Retrieved 7 December 2008 Erickson Edward J 2007 Gooch John Reid Brian Holden eds Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I A Comparative Study Military History and Policy Abingdon Oxon Routledge ISBN 978 0 203 96456 9 Gilbert Martin 2004 The First World War A Complete History New York Henry Holt and Co ISBN 978 0 8050 7617 2 Hart Peter 2011 Gallipoli London Profile Books ISBN 978 1 84668 159 2 Kraaijestein Martin Schulten Paul 2009 Het Epos van Gallipoli Feiten verhalen en mythen over de geallieerde aanval op Turkije tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog The Epic of Gallipoli Facts Stories and Myths about the Allied Attack on Turkey during World War I in Dutch Soesterberg Uitgeverij Aspekt ISBN 978 90 5911 758 7 Kyle Roy 2003 An Anzac s Story Camberwell Penguin ISBN 978 0 14 300187 4 Laffin John 1980 Damn the Dardanelles The Story of Gallipoli London Osprey ISBN 0 85045 350 X OCLC 7770209 Ozdemir H 2008 2005 The Ottoman Army Disease and Death on the Battlefield 1914 1918 Salt Lake City University of Utah Press ISBN 978 1 60781 964 6 Patton George S 1936 The Defense of Gallipoli A General Staff Study Hawaii Hawaiian Department Plowman Peter 2013 Voyage to Gallipoli Kenthurst NSW Rosenberg ISBN 978 1 922013 53 8 Orr Philip 2006 Field of Bones An Irish Division at Gallipoli Dublin Ireland Lilliput Press ISBN 978 1 84351 065 9 Tyquin Michael 1993 Gallipoli The Medical War Sydney University of New South Wales Press ISBN 978 0 86840 189 8 Uyar Mesut 2015 The Ottoman Defence Against The Anzac Landing Australian Army Campaigns Vol 16 Newport NSW Big Sky ISBN 978 1 925275 01 8 Waite Fred 1919 The New Zealanders at Gallipoli Official History New Zealand s Effort in the Great War Vol I Auckland NZ Whitcombe and Tombs OCLC 8003944 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gallipoli Campaign Winston Churchill amp Gallipoli UK Parliament Living Heritage Media related to Battle of Gallipoli at Wikimedia Commons Learning resources from the Imperial War Museum Archived from the original on 1 September 2020 Retrieved 19 May 2016 Original reports from The Times Map of Europe during the Gallipoli Campaign Omniatlas com Archived from the original on 19 April 2014 Retrieved 14 February 2012 Despatches The campaign at the Dardanelles Gallipoli The Long Long Trail Gallipoli Centenary Research Project Macquarie University Archived from the original on 8 June 2013 Winston Churchill s World War Disaster Gallipoli casualties by country NZ History Gallipoli Diary public domain audiobook at LibriVox Australia s role in the Gallipoli Campaign ABC and Department of Veteran s Affairs Portals History World War I 1920s Retrieved from https en 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