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Wikipedia

Electronic music

Electronic music is a genre of music that employs electronic musical instruments, digital instruments, or circuitry-based music technology in its creation. It includes both music made using electronic and electromechanical means (electroacoustic music). Pure electronic instruments depended entirely on circuitry-based sound generation, for instance using devices such as an electronic oscillator, theremin, or synthesizer. Electromechanical instruments can have mechanical parts such as strings, hammers, and electric elements including magnetic pickups, power amplifiers and loudspeakers. Such electromechanical devices include the telharmonium, Hammond organ, electric piano and the electric guitar.[3][4]

The first electronic musical devices were developed at the end of the 19th century. During the 1920s and 1930s, some electronic instruments were introduced and the first compositions featuring them were written. By the 1940s, magnetic audio tape allowed musicians to tape sounds and then modify them by changing the tape speed or direction, leading to the development of electroacoustic tape music in the 1940s, in Egypt and France. Musique concrète, created in Paris in 1948, was based on editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. Music produced solely from electronic generators was first produced in Germany in 1953. Electronic music was also created in Japan and the United States beginning in the 1950s and Algorithmic composition with computers was first demonstrated in the same decade.

During the 1960s, digital computer music was pioneered, innovation in live electronics took place, and Japanese electronic musical instruments began to influence the music industry. In the early 1970s, Moog synthesizers and Japanese drum machines helped popularize synthesized electronic music. The 1970s also saw electronic music begin to have a significant influence on popular music, with the adoption of polyphonic synthesizers, electronic drums, drum machines, and turntables, through the emergence of genres such as disco, krautrock, new wave, synth-pop, hip hop, and EDM. In the early 1980s mass-produced digital synthesizers, such as the Yamaha DX7, became popular, and MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) was developed. In the same decade, with a greater reliance on synthesizers and the adoption of programmable drum machines, electronic popular music came to the fore. During the 1990s, with the proliferation of increasingly affordable music technology, electronic music production became an established part of popular culture.[5] In Berlin starting in 1989, the Love Parade became the largest street party with over 1 million visitors, inspiring other such popular celebrations of electronic music.[6]

Contemporary electronic music includes many varieties and ranges from experimental art music to popular forms such as electronic dance music. Pop electronic music is most recognizable in its 4/4 form and more connected with the mainstream than preceding forms which were popular in niche markets.[7]

Origins: late 19th century to early 20th century

 
Front page of Scientific American in 1907, demonstrating the size, operation, and popularity of the Telharmonium

At the turn of the 20th century, experimentation with emerging electronics led to the first electronic musical instruments.[8] These initial inventions were not sold, but were instead used in demonstrations and public performances. The audiences were presented with reproductions of existing music instead of new compositions for the instruments.[9] While some were considered novelties and produced simple tones, the Telharmonium synthesized the sound of several orchestral instruments with reasonable precision. It achieved viable public interest and made commercial progress into streaming music through telephone networks.[10]

Critics of musical conventions at the time saw promise in these developments. Ferruccio Busoni encouraged the composition of microtonal music allowed for by electronic instruments. He predicted the use of machines in future music, writing the influential Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music (1907).[11][12] Futurists such as Francesco Balilla Pratella and Luigi Russolo began composing music with acoustic noise to evoke the sound of machinery. They predicted expansions in timbre allowed for by electronics in the influential manifesto The Art of Noises (1913).[13][14]

Early compositions

 
Leon Theremin demonstrating the theremin in 1927

Developments of the vacuum tube led to electronic instruments that were smaller, amplified, and more practical for performance.[15] In particular, the theremin, ondes Martenot and trautonium were commercially produced by the early 1930s.[16][17]

From the late 1920s, the increased practicality of electronic instruments influenced composers such as Joseph Schillinger to adopt them. They were typically used within orchestras, and most composers wrote parts for the theremin that could otherwise be performed with string instruments.[16]

Avant-garde composers criticized the predominant use of electronic instruments for conventional purposes.[16] The instruments offered expansions in pitch resources[18] that were exploited by advocates of microtonal music such as Charles Ives, Dimitrios Levidis, Olivier Messiaen and Edgard Varèse.[19][20][21] Further, Percy Grainger used the theremin to abandon fixed tonation entirely,[22] while Russian composers such as Gavriil Popov treated it as a source of noise in otherwise-acoustic noise music.[23]

Recording experiments

Developments in early recording technology paralleled that of electronic instruments. The first means of recording and reproducing audio was invented in the late 19th century with the mechanical phonograph.[24] Record players became a common household item, and by the 1920s composers were using them to play short recordings in performances.[25]

The introduction of electrical recording in 1925 was followed by increased experimentation with record players. Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch composed several pieces in 1930 by layering recordings of instruments and vocals at adjusted speeds. Influenced by these techniques, John Cage composed Imaginary Landscape No. 1 in 1939 by adjusting the speeds of recorded tones.[26]

Composers began to experiment with newly developed sound-on-film technology. Recordings could be spliced together to create sound collages, such as those by Tristan Tzara, Kurt Schwitters, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Walter Ruttmann and Dziga Vertov. Further, the technology allowed sound to be graphically created and modified. These techniques were used to compose soundtracks for several films in Germany and Russia, in addition to the popular Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde in the United States. Experiments with graphical sound were continued by Norman McLaren from the late 1930s.[27]

Development: 1940s to 1950s

Electroacoustic tape music

The first practical audio tape recorder was unveiled in 1935.[28] Improvements to the technology were made using the AC biasing technique, which significantly improved recording fidelity.[29][30] As early as 1942, test recordings were being made in stereo.[31] Although these developments were initially confined to Germany, recorders and tapes were brought to the United States following the end of World War II.[32] These were the basis for the first commercially produced tape recorder in 1948.[33]

In 1944, before the use of magnetic tape for compositional purposes, Egyptian composer Halim El-Dabh, while still a student in Cairo, used a cumbersome wire recorder to record sounds of an ancient zaar ceremony. Using facilities at the Middle East Radio studios El-Dabh processed the recorded material using reverberation, echo, voltage controls and re-recording. What resulted is believed to be the earliest tape music composition.[34] The resulting work was entitled The Expression of Zaar and it was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo. While his initial experiments in tape-based composition were not widely known outside of Egypt at the time, El-Dabh is also known for his later work in electronic music at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in the late 1950s.[35]

Musique concrète

 
Phonogene (1953), a tape machine for modifying the sound structure, developed by Pierre Schaeffer et al. at GRMC
 
Pierre Schaeffer presenting the Acousmonium (1974) that consisted of 80 loudspeakers for tape playback, at GRM

Following his work with Studio d'Essai at Radiodiffusion Française (RDF), during the early 1940s, Pierre Schaeffer is credited with originating the theory and practice of musique concrète. In the late 1940s, experiments in sound-based composition using shellac record players were first conducted by Schaeffer. In 1950, the techniques of musique concrete were expanded when magnetic tape machines were used to explore sound manipulation practices such as speed variation (pitch shift) and tape splicing.[36][37]

On 5 October 1948, RDF broadcast Schaeffer's Etude aux chemins de fer. This was the first "movement" of Cinq études de bruits, and marked the beginning of studio realizations[38] and musique concrète (or acousmatic art). Schaeffer employed a disc cutting lathe, four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit. Not long after this, Pierre Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer, a partnership that would have profound and lasting effects on the direction of electronic music. Another associate of Schaeffer, Edgard Varèse, began work on Déserts, a work for chamber orchestra and tape. The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer's studio and were later revised at Columbia University.

In 1950, Schaeffer gave the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrète at the École Normale de Musique de Paris. "Schaeffer used a PA system, several turntables, and mixers. The performance did not go well, as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before."[39] Later that same year, Pierre Henry collaborated with Schaeffer on Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950) the first major work of musique concrete.[40] In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music. Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera, Orpheus, for concrete sounds and voices.

By 1951 the work of Schaeffer, composer-percussionist Pierre Henry, and sound engineer Jacques Poullin had received official recognition and The Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète, Club d 'Essai de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française was established at RTF in Paris, the ancestor of the ORTF.[41]

Elektronische Musik

 
Karlheinz Stockhausen in the Electronic Music Studio of WDR, Cologne, in 1991

Karlheinz Stockhausen worked briefly in Schaeffer's studio in 1952, and afterward for many years at the WDR Cologne's Studio for Electronic Music.

1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions—acoustic instrumentation augmented/accompanied by recordings of manipulated or electronically generated sound. Three major works were premiered that year: Varèse's Déserts, for chamber ensemble and tape sounds, and two works by Otto Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky: Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville Symphony and A Poem in Cycles and Bells, both for orchestra and tape. Because he had been working at Schaeffer's studio, the tape part for Varèse's work contains much more concrete sounds than electronic. "A group made up of wind instruments, percussion and piano alternate with the mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors, coming from two loudspeakers."[42]

At the German premiere of Déserts in Hamburg, which was conducted by Bruno Maderna, the tape controls were operated by Karlheinz Stockhausen.[42] The title Déserts suggested to Varèse not only "all physical deserts (of sand, sea, snow, of outer space, of empty streets), but also the deserts in the mind of man; not only those stripped aspects of nature that suggest bareness, aloofness, timelessness, but also that remote inner space no telescope can reach, where man is alone, a world of mystery and essential loneliness."[43]

In Cologne, what would become the most famous electronic music studio in the world, was officially opened at the radio studios of the NWDR in 1953, though it had been in the planning stages as early as 1950 and early compositions were made and broadcast in 1951.[44] The brainchild of Werner Meyer-Eppler, Robert Beyer, and Herbert Eimert (who became its first director), the studio was soon joined by Karlheinz Stockhausen and Gottfried Michael Koenig. In his 1949 thesis Elektronische Klangerzeugung: Elektronische Musik und Synthetische Sprache, Meyer-Eppler conceived the idea to synthesize music entirely from electronically produced signals; in this way, elektronische Musik was sharply differentiated from French musique concrète, which used sounds recorded from acoustical sources.[45][46]

In 1953, Stockhausen composed his Studie I, followed in 1954 by Elektronische Studie II—the first electronic piece to be published as a score. In 1955, more experimental and electronic studios began to appear. Notable were the creation of the Studio di fonologia musicale di Radio Milano, a studio at the NHK in Tokyo founded by Toshiro Mayuzumi, and the Philips studio at Eindhoven, the Netherlands, which moved to the University of Utrecht as the Institute of Sonology in 1960.

"With Stockhausen and Mauricio Kagel in residence, [Cologne] became a year-round hive of charismatic avante-gardism."[47] on two occasions combining electronically generated sounds with relatively conventional orchestras—in Mixtur (1964) and Hymnen, dritte Region mit Orchester (1967).[48] Stockhausen stated that his listeners had told him his electronic music gave them an experience of "outer space", sensations of flying, or being in a "fantastic dream world".[49]

Japan

 
 
Yamaha Magna Organ and the designated tone cabinet (1935)[50]

The earliest group of electronic musical instruments in Japan, Yamaha Magna Organ was built in 1935.[50] however, after World War II, Japanese composers such as Minao Shibata knew of the development of electronic musical instruments. By the late 1940s, Japanese composers began experimenting with electronic music and institutional sponsorship enabled them to experiment with advanced equipment. Their infusion of Asian music into the emerging genre would eventually support Japan's popularity in the development of music technology several decades later.[51]

Following the foundation of electronics company Sony in 1946, composers Toru Takemitsu and Minao Shibata independently explored possible uses for electronic technology to produce music.[52] Takemitsu had ideas similar to musique concrète, which he was unaware of, while Shibata foresaw the development of synthesizers and predicted a drastic change in music.[53] Sony began producing popular magnetic tape recorders for government and public use.[51][54]

The avant-garde collective Jikken Kōbō (Experimental Workshop), founded in 1950, was offered access to emerging audio technology by Sony. The company hired Toru Takemitsu to demonstrate their tape recorders with compositions and performances of electronic tape music.[55] The first electronic tape pieces by the group were "Toraware no Onna" ("Imprisoned Woman") and "Piece B", composed in 1951 by Kuniharu Akiyama.[56] Many of the electroacoustic tape pieces they produced were used as incidental music for radio, film, and theatre. They also held concerts employing a slide show synchronized with a recorded soundtrack.[57] Composers outside of the Jikken Kōbō, such as Yasushi Akutagawa, Saburo Tominaga, and Shirō Fukai, were also experimenting with radiophonic tape music between 1952 and 1953.[54]

Musique concrète was introduced to Japan by Toshiro Mayuzumi, who was influenced by a Pierre Schaeffer concert. From 1952, he composed tape music pieces for a comedy film, a radio broadcast, and a radio drama.[56][58] However, Schaeffer's concept of sound object was not influential among Japanese composers, who were mainly interested in overcoming the restrictions of human performance.[59] This led to several Japanese electroacoustic musicians making use of serialism and twelve-tone techniques,[59] evident in Yoshirō Irino's 1951 dodecaphonic piece "Concerto da Camera",[58] in the organization of electronic sounds in Mayuzumi's "X, Y, Z for Musique Concrète", and later in Shibata's electronic music by 1956.[60]

Modelling the NWDR studio in Cologne, established an NHK electronic music studio in Tokyo in 1954, which became one of the world's leading electronic music facilities.The NHK electronic music studio was equipped with technologies such as tone-generating and audio processing equipment, recording and radiophonic equipment, ondes Martenot, Monochord and Melochord, sine-wave oscillators, tape recorders, ring modulators, band-pass filters, and four- and eight-channel mixers. Musicians associated with the studio included Toshiro Mayuzumi, Minao Shibata, Joji Yuasa, Toshi Ichiyanagi, and Toru Takemitsu. The studio's first electronic compositions were completed in 1955, including Mayuzumi's five-minute pieces "Studie I: Music for Sine Wave by Proportion of Prime Number", "Music for Modulated Wave by Proportion of Prime Number" and "Invention for Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave" produced using the studio's various tone-generating capabilities, and Shibata's 20-minute stereo piece "Musique Concrète for Stereophonic Broadcast".[61][62]

United States

In the United States, electronic music was being created as early as 1939, when John Cage published Imaginary Landscape, No. 1, using two variable-speed turntables, frequency recordings, muted piano, and cymbal, but no electronic means of production. Cage composed five more "Imaginary Landscapes" between 1942 and 1952 (one withdrawn), mostly for percussion ensemble, though No. 4 is for twelve radios and No. 5, written in 1952, uses 42 recordings and is to be realized as a magnetic tape. According to Otto Luening, Cage also performed Williams Mix at Donaueschingen in 1954, using eight loudspeakers, three years after his alleged collaboration.[clarification needed] Williams Mix was a success at the Donaueschingen Festival, where it made a "strong impression".[63]

The Music for Magnetic Tape Project was formed by members of the New York School (John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff, David Tudor, and Morton Feldman),[64] and lasted three years until 1954. Cage wrote of this collaboration: "In this social darkness, therefore, the work of Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, and Christian Wolff continues to present a brilliant light, for the reason that at the several points of notation, performance, and audition, action is provocative."[65]

Cage completed Williams Mix in 1953 while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project.[66] The group had no permanent facility, and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios, including the studio of Bebe and Louis Barron.

Columbia-Princeton Center

In the same year Columbia University purchased its first tape recorder—a professional Ampex machine—to record concerts. Vladimir Ussachevsky, who was on the music faculty of Columbia University, was placed in charge of the device, and almost immediately began experimenting with it.

Herbert Russcol writes: "Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another."[67] Ussachevsky said later: "I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation."[67] On Thursday, 8 May 1952, Ussachevsky presented several demonstrations of tape music/effects that he created at his Composers Forum, in the McMillin Theatre at Columbia University. These included Transposition, Reverberation, Experiment, Composition, and Underwater Valse. In an interview, he stated: "I presented a few examples of my discovery in a public concert in New York together with other compositions I had written for conventional instruments."[67] Otto Luening, who had attended this concert, remarked: "The equipment at his disposal consisted of an Ampex tape recorder . . . and a simple box-like device designed by the brilliant young engineer, Peter Mauzey, to create feedback, a form of mechanical reverberation. Other equipment was borrowed or purchased with personal funds."[68]

Just three months later, in August 1952, Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington, Vermont, at Luening's invitation to present his experiments. There, the two collaborated on various pieces. Luening described the event: "Equipped with earphones and a flute, I began developing my first tape-recorder composition. Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations."[68] They played some early pieces informally at a party, where "a number of composers almost solemnly congratulated us saying, 'This is it' ('it' meaning the music of the future)."[68]

Word quickly reached New York City. Oliver Daniel telephoned and invited the pair to "produce a group of short compositions for the October concert sponsored by the American Composers Alliance and Broadcast Music, Inc., under the direction of Leopold Stokowski at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. After some hesitation, we agreed. . . . Henry Cowell placed his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, at our disposal. With the borrowed equipment in the back of Ussachevsky's car, we left Bennington for Woodstock and stayed two weeks. . . . In late September 1952, the travelling laboratory reached Ussachevsky's living room in New York, where we eventually completed the compositions."[68]

Two months later, on 28 October, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening presented the first Tape Music concert in the United States. The concert included Luening's Fantasy in Space (1952)—"an impressionistic virtuoso piece"[68] using manipulated recordings of flute—and Low Speed (1952), an "exotic composition that took the flute far below its natural range."[68] Both pieces were created at the home of Henry Cowell in Woodstock, New York. After several concerts caused a sensation in New York City, Ussachevsky and Luening were invited onto a live broadcast of NBC's Today Show to do an interview demonstration—the first televised electroacoustic performance. Luening described the event: "I improvised some [flute] sequences for the tape recorder. Ussachevsky then and there put them through electronic transformations."[69]

The score for Forbidden Planet, by Louis and Bebe Barron,[70] was entirely composed using custom-built electronic circuits and tape recorders in 1956 (but no synthesizers in the modern sense of the word).[clarification needed]

Australia

 
CSIRAC, Australia's first digital computer, displayed at the Melbourne Museum

The world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC, which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the Colonel Bogey March, of which no known recordings exist, only the accurate reconstruction.[71] However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice. CSIRAC was never recorded, but the music played was accurately reconstructed. The oldest known recordings of computer-generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer, a commercial version of the Baby Machine from the University of Manchester in the autumn of 1951.[72] The music program was written by Christopher Strachey.

Mid-to-late 1950s

The impact of computers continued in 1956. Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson composed Illiac Suite for string quartet, the first complete work of computer-assisted composition using algorithmic composition. "... Hiller postulated that a computer could be taught the rules of a particular style and then called on to compose accordingly."[73] Later developments included the work of Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories, who developed the influential MUSIC I program in 1957, one of the first computer programs to play electronic music. Vocoder technology was also a major development in this early era. In 1956, Stockhausen composed Gesang der Jünglinge, the first major work of the Cologne studio, based on a text from the Book of Daniel. An important technological development of that year was the invention of the Clavivox synthesizer by Raymond Scott with subassembly by Robert Moog.

In 1957, Kid Baltan (Dick Raaymakers) and Tom Dissevelt released their debut album, Song Of The Second Moon, recorded at the Philips studio in the Netherlands.[74] The public remained interested in the new sounds being created around the world, as can be deduced by the inclusion of Varèse's Poème électronique, which was played over four hundred loudspeakers at the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 Brussels World Fair. That same year, Mauricio Kagel, an Argentine composer, composed Transición II. The work was realized at the WDR studio in Cologne. Two musicians performed on the piano, one in the traditional manner, the other playing on the strings, frame, and case. Two other performers used tape to unite the presentation of live sounds with the future of prerecorded materials from later on and its past of recordings made earlier in the performance.

In 1958, Columbia-Princeton developed the RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer, the first programmable synthesizer.[75] Prominent composers such as Vladimir Ussachevsky, Otto Luening, Milton Babbitt, Charles Wuorinen, Halim El-Dabh, Bülent Arel and Mario Davidovsky used the RCA Synthesizer extensively in various compositions.[76] One of the most influential composers associated with the early years of the studio was Egypt's Halim El-Dabh who,[77] after having developed the earliest known electronic tape music in 1944,[34] became more famous for Leiyla and the Poet, a 1959 series of electronic compositions that stood out for its immersion and seamless fusion of electronic and folk music, in contrast to the more mathematical approach used by serial composers of the time such as Babbitt. El-Dabh's Leiyla and the Poet, released as part of the album Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in 1961, would be cited as a strong influence by a number of musicians, ranging from Neil Rolnick, Charles Amirkhanian and Alice Shields to rock musicians Frank Zappa and The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band.[78]

Following the emergence of differences within the GRMC (Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrète) Pierre Henry, Philippe Arthuys, and several of their colleagues, resigned in April 1958. Schaeffer created a new collective, called Groupe de Recherches Musicales (GRM) and set about recruiting new members including Luc Ferrari, Beatriz Ferreyra, François-Bernard Mâche, Iannis Xenakis, Bernard Parmegiani, and Mireille Chamass-Kyrou. Later arrivals included Ivo Malec, Philippe Carson, Romuald Vandelle, Edgardo Canton and François Bayle.[79]

Expansion: 1960s

These were fertile years for electronic music—not just for academia, but for independent artists as synthesizer technology became more accessible. By this time, a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was established and growing. 1960 witnessed the composition of Luening's Gargoyles for violin and tape as well as the premiere of Stockhausen's Kontakte for electronic sounds, piano, and percussion. This piece existed in two versions—one for 4-channel tape, and the other for tape with human performers. "In Kontakte, Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax. This new approach, which he termed 'moment form', resembles the 'cinematic splice' techniques in early twentieth-century film."[80]

The theremin had been in use since the 1920s but it attained a degree of popular recognition through its use in science-fiction film soundtrack music in the 1950s (e.g., Bernard Herrmann's classic score for The Day the Earth Stood Still).[81]

In the UK in this period, the BBC Radiophonic Workshop (established in 1958) came to prominence, thanks in large measure to their work on the BBC science-fiction series Doctor Who. One of the most influential British electronic artists in this period[82] was Workshop staffer Delia Derbyshire, who is now famous for her 1963 electronic realisation of the iconic Doctor Who theme, composed by Ron Grainer.

 
Israeli composer Josef Tal at the Electronic Music Studio in Jerusalem (c. 1965) with Hugh Le Caine's Creative Tape Recorder (a sound synthesizer) aka "Multi-track"

During the time of the UNESCO fellowship for studies in electronic music (1958) Josef Tal went on a study tour in the US and Canada.[83] He summarized his conclusions in two articles that he submitted to UNESCO.[84] In 1961, he established the Centre for Electronic Music in Israel at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 1962, Hugh Le Caine arrived in Jerusalem to install his Creative Tape Recorder in the centre.[85] In the 1990s Tal conducted, together with Dr. Shlomo Markel, in cooperation with the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, and the Volkswagen Foundation a research project ('Talmark') aimed at the development of a novel musical notation system for electronic music.[86]

Milton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer—his Composition for Synthesizer (1961)—which he created using the RCA synthesizer at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center.

For Babbitt, the RCA synthesizer was a dream come true for three reasons. First, the ability to pinpoint and control every musical element precisely. Second, the time needed to realize his elaborate serial structures were brought within practical reach. Third, the question was no longer "What are the limits of the human performer?" but rather "What are the limits of human hearing?"[87]

The collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents. In 1961, Ussachevsky invited Varèse to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC). Upon arrival, Varese embarked upon a revision of Déserts. He was assisted by Mario Davidovsky and Bülent Arel.[88]

The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the San Francisco Tape Music Center in 1963 by Morton Subotnick, with additional members Pauline Oliveros, Ramon Sender, Anthony Martin, and Terry Riley.[89]

Later, the Center moved to Mills College, directed by Pauline Oliveros, where it is today known as the Center for Contemporary Music.[90] Pietro Grossi was an Italian pioneer of computer composition and tape music, who first experimented with electronic techniques in the early sixties. Grossi was a cellist and composer, born in Venice in 1917. He founded the S 2F M (Studio de Fonologia Musicale di Firenze) in 1963 to experiment with electronic sound and composition.

Simultaneously in San Francisco, composer Stan Shaff and equipment designer Doug McEachern, presented the first "Audium" concert at San Francisco State College (1962), followed by work at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (1963), conceived of as in time, controlled movement of sound in space. Twelve speakers surrounded the audience, four speakers were mounted on a rotating, mobile-like construction above.[91] In an SFMOMA performance the following year (1964), San Francisco Chronicle music critic Alfred Frankenstein commented, "the possibilities of the space-sound continuum have seldom been so extensively explored".[91] In 1967, the first Audium, a "sound-space continuum" opened, holding weekly performances through 1970. In 1975, enabled by seed money from the National Endowment for the Arts, a new Audium opened, designed floor to ceiling for spatial sound composition and performance.[92] "In contrast, there are composers who manipulated sound space by locating multiple speakers at various locations in a performance space and then switching or panning the sound between the sources. In this approach, the composition of spatial manipulation is dependent on the location of the speakers and usually exploits the acoustical properties of the enclosure. Examples include Varese's Poeme Electronique (tape music performed in the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 World Fair, Brussels) and Stan Schaff's Audium installation, currently active in San Francisco."[93][94] Through weekly programs (over 4,500 in 40 years), Shaff "sculpts" sound, performing now-digitized spatial works live through 176 speakers.[95]

Jean-Jacques Perrey experimented with Schaeffer's techniques on tape loops and was among the first to use the recently released Moog synthesizer developed by Robert Moog. With this instrument he composed some works with Gershon Kingsley and solo.[96] A well-known example of the use of Moog's full-sized Moog modular synthesizer is the 1968 Switched-On Bach album by Wendy Carlos, which triggered a craze for synthesizer music.[97] In 1969 David Tudor brought a Moog modular synthesizer and Ampex tape machines to the National Institute of Design in Ahmedabad with the support of the Sarabhai family, forming the foundation of India's first electronic music studio. Here a group of composers Jinraj Joshipura, Gita Sarabhai, SC Sharma, IS Mathur and Atul Desai developed experimental sound compositions between 1969 and 1973[98]

Computer music

Musical melodies were first generated by the computer CSIRAC in Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were obviously speculative). Research has shown that people speculated about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises,[99] but there is no evidence that they actually did it.[100][101]

The world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC, which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard in the 1950s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the "Colonel Bogey March"[102] of which no known recordings exist. However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice which is current computer-music practice.

The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the British National Anthem that was programmed by Christopher Strachey on the Ferranti Mark I, late in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a BBC outside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, "Ba, Ba Black Sheep", and "In the Mood" and this is recognised as the earliest recording of a computer to play music. This recording can be heard at this Manchester University site. Researchers at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard on SoundCloud.[103][104][72]

The late 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis. Starting in 1957, Max Mathews of Bell Labs developed the MUSIC programs, culminating in MUSIC V, a direct digital synthesis language.[105] Laurie Spiegel developed the algorithmic musical composition software "Music Mouse" (1986) for Macintosh, Amiga, and Atari computers.

Stochastic music

An important new development was the advent of computers to compose music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds. Iannis Xenakis began what is called musique stochastique, or stochastic music, which is a composing method that uses mathematical probability systems. Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters. Xenakis used computers to compose pieces like ST/4 for string quartet and ST/48 for orchestra (both 1962),[106] Morsima-Amorsima, ST/10, and Atrées. He developed the computer system UPIC for translating graphical images into musical results and composed Mycènes Alpha (1978) with it.

Live electronics

In Europe in 1964, Karlheinz Stockhausen composed Mikrophonie I for tam-tam, hand-held microphones, filters, and potentiometers, and Mixtur for orchestra, four sine-wave generators, and four ring modulators. In 1965 he composed Mikrophonie II for choir, Hammond organ, and ring modulators.[107]

In 1966–1967, Reed Ghazala discovered and began to teach "circuit bending"—the application of the creative short circuit, a process of chance short-circuiting, creating experimental electronic instruments, exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm, and influenced by John Cage's aleatoric music [sic] concept.[108]

Cosey Fanni Tutti's performance art and musical career explored the concept of 'acceptable' music and she went on to explore the use of sound as a means of desire or discomfort.[109][failed verification]

Wendy Carlos performed selections from her album Switched-On Bach on stage with a synthesizer with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra; another live performance was with Kurzweil Baroque Ensemble for "Bach at the Beacon" in 1997.[110] In June 2018, Suzanne Ciani released LIVE Quadraphonic, a live album documenting her first solo performance on a Buchla synthesizer in 40 years. It was one of the first quadraphonic vinyl releases in over 30 years.[111]

Japanese instruments

 
Early electronic organ: Yamaha Electone D-1 (1959)

In the 1950s,[112][113] Japanese electronic musical instruments began influencing the international music industry.[114][115] Ikutaro Kakehashi, who founded Ace Tone in 1960, developed his own version of electronic percussion that had been already popular on the overseas electronic organ.[116] At NAMM 1964, he revealed it as the R-1 Rhythm Ace, a hand-operated percussion device that played electronic drum sounds manually as the user pushed buttons, in a similar fashion to modern electronic drum pads.[116][117][118]

 
Early drum machine: Korg Donca Matic DA-20 (1963)

In 1963, Korg released the Donca-Matic DA-20, an electro-mechanical drum machine.[119] In 1965, Nippon Columbia patented a fully electronic drum machine.[120] Korg released the Donca-Matic DC-11 electronic drum machine in 1966, which they followed with the Korg Mini Pops, which was developed as an option for the Yamaha Electone electric organ.[119] Korg's Stageman and Mini Pops series were notable for "natural metallic percussion" sounds and incorporating controls for drum "breaks and fill-ins."[115]

In 1967, Ace Tone founder Ikutaro Kakehashi patented a preset rhythm-pattern generator using diode matrix circuit[121] similar to the Seeburg's prior U.S. Patent 3,358,068 filed in 1964 (See Drum machine#History), which he released as the FR-1 Rhythm Ace drum machine the same year.[116] It offered 16 preset patterns, and four buttons to manually play each instrument sound (cymbal, claves, cowbell and bass drum). The rhythm patterns could also be cascaded together by pushing multiple rhythm buttons simultaneously, and the possible combination of rhythm patterns were more than a hundred.[116] Ace Tone's Rhythm Ace drum machines found their way into popular music from the late 1960s, followed by Korg drum machines in the 1970s.[115] Kakehashi later left Ace Tone and founded Roland Corporation in 1972, with Roland synthesizers and drum machines becoming highly influential for the next several decades.[116] The company would go on to have a big impact on popular music, and do more to shape popular electronic music than any other company.[118]

 
Direct-drive turntable: Technics SL-1200 (introduced in 1972)

Turntablism has origins in the invention of direct-drive turntables. Early belt-drive turntables were unsuitable for turntablism, since they had a slow start-up time, and they were prone to wear-and-tear and breakage, as the belt would break from backspin or scratching.[122] The first direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita (now Panasonic),[123] based in Osaka, Japan. It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests.[124] In 1969, Matsushita released it as the SP-10,[124] the first direct-drive turntable on the market,[125] and the first in their influential Technics series of turntables.[124] It was succeeded by the Technics SL-1100 and SL-1200 in the early 1970s, and they were widely adopted by hip hop musicians,[124] with the SL-1200 remaining the most widely used turntable in DJ culture for several decades.[126]

Jamaican dub music

In Jamaica, a form of popular electronic music emerged in the 1960s, dub music, rooted in sound system culture. Dub music was pioneered by studio engineers, such as Sylvan Morris, King Tubby, Errol Thompson, Lee "Scratch" Perry, and Scientist, producing reggae-influenced experimental music with electronic sound technology, in recording studios and at sound system parties.[127] Their experiments included forms of tape-based composition comparable to aspects of musique concrète, an emphasis on repetitive rhythmic structures (often stripped of their harmonic elements) comparable to minimalism, the electronic manipulation of spatiality, the sonic electronic manipulation of pre-recorded musical materials from mass media, deejays toasting over pre-recorded music comparable to live electronic music,[127] remixing music,[128] turntablism,[129] and the mixing and scratching of vinyl.[130]

Despite the limited electronic equipment available to dub pioneers such as King Tubby and Lee "Scratch" Perry, their experiments in remix culture were musically cutting-edge.[128] King Tubby, for example, was a sound system proprietor and electronics technician, whose small front-room studio in the Waterhouse ghetto of western Kingston was a key site of dub music creation.[131]

Late 1960s to early 1980s

Rise of popular electronic music

In the late 1960s, pop and rock musicians, including the Beach Boys and the Beatles, began to use electronic instruments, like the theremin and Mellotron, to supplement and define their sound. In his book Electronic and Experimental Music, Thom Holmes recognises the Beatles' 1966 recording "Tomorrow Never Knows" as the song that "ushered in a new era in the use of electronic music in rock and pop music" due to the band's incorporation of tape loops and reversed and speed-manipulated tape sounds.[132]

Also in the late 1960s, the music duo Silver Apples and experimental rock bands like White Noise and the United States of America, are regarded as pioneers in the electronic rock and electronica genres for their work in melding psychedelic rock with oscillators and synthesizers.[133][134][135] The 1969 instrumental "Popcorn" written by Gershon Kingsley for Music To Moog By became a worldwide success due to the 1972 version made by Hot Butter.[136][137]

 
Keith Emerson performing in Saint Petersburg in 2008

By the end of the 1960s, the Moog synthesizer took a leading place in the sound of emerging progressive rock with bands including Pink Floyd, Yes, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, and Genesis making them part of their sound. Instrumental prog rock was particularly significant in continental Europe, allowing bands like Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Can, Neu!, and Faust to circumvent the language barrier.[138] Their synthesiser-heavy "krautrock", along with the work of Brian Eno (for a time the keyboard player with Roxy Music), would be a major influence on subsequent electronic rock.[139]

Ambient dub was pioneered by King Tubby and other Jamaican sound artists, using DJ-inspired ambient electronics, complete with drop-outs, echo, equalization and psychedelic electronic effects. It featured layering techniques and incorporated elements of world music, deep basslines and harmonic sounds.[140] Techniques such as a long echo delay were also used.[141] Other notable artists within the genre include Dreadzone, Higher Intelligence Agency, The Orb, Ott, Loop Guru, Woob and Transglobal Underground.[142]

Dub music influenced electronic musical techniques later adopted by hip hop music when Jamaican immigrant DJ Kool Herc in the early 1970s introduced Jamaica's sound system culture and dub music techniques to America. One such technique that became popular in hip hop culture was playing two copies of the same record on two turntables in alternation, extending the b-dancers' favorite section.[143] The turntable eventually went on to become the most visible electronic musical instrument, and occasionally the most virtuosic, in the 1980s and 1990s.[129]

Electronic rock was also produced by several Japanese musicians, including Isao Tomita's Electric Samurai: Switched on Rock (1972), which featured Moog synthesizer renditions of contemporary pop and rock songs,[144] and Osamu Kitajima's progressive rock album Benzaiten (1974).[145] The mid-1970s saw the rise of electronic art music musicians such as Jean Michel Jarre, Vangelis, Tomita and Klaus Schulze who were significant influences on the development of new-age music.[140] The hi-tech appeal of these works created for some years the trend of listing the electronic musical equipment employed in the album sleeves, as a distinctive feature. Electronic music began to enter regularly in radio programming and top-sellers charts, as the French band Space with their debut studio album Magic Fly[146] or Jarre with Oxygène.[147] Between 1977 and 1981, Kraftwerk released albums such as Trans-Europe Express, The Man-Machine or Computer World, which influenced subgenres of electronic music.[148]

In this era, the sound of rock musicians like Mike Oldfield and The Alan Parsons Project (who is credited the first rock song to feature a digital vocoder in 1975, The Raven) used to be arranged and blended with electronic effects and/or music as well, which became much more prominent in the mid-1980s. Jeff Wayne achieved a long-lasting success[149] with his 1978 electronic rock musical version of The War of the Worlds.

Film scores also benefit from the electronic sound. During the 1970s and 1980s, Wendy Carlos composed the score for A Clockwork Orange, The Shining and Tron.[150] In 1977, Gene Page recorded a disco version of the hit theme by John Williams from Steven Spielberg film Close Encounters of the Third Kind. Page's version peaked on the R&B chart at #30.[citation needed] The score of 1978 film Midnight Express composed by Italian synth-pioneer Giorgio Moroder won the Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1979, as did it again in 1981 the score by Vangelis for Chariots of Fire.[151] After the arrival of punk rock, a form of basic electronic rock emerged, increasingly using new digital technology to replace other instruments. The American duo Suicide, who arose from the punk scene in New York, utilized drum machines and synthesizers in a hybrid between electronics and punk on their eponymous 1977 album.[152]

Synth-pop pioneering bands which enjoyed success for years included Ultravox with their 1977 track "Hiroshima Mon Amour" on Ha!-Ha!-Ha!,[153] Yellow Magic Orchestra with their self-titled album (1978), The Buggles with their prominent 1979 debut single Video Killed the Radio Star,[154] Gary Numan with his solo debut album The Pleasure Principle and single Cars in 1979,[155] Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark with their 1979 single Electricity featured on their eponymous debut album, Depeche Mode with their first single Dreaming of Me recorded in 1980 and released in 1981 album Speak & Spell,[156] A Flock of Seagulls with their 1981 single Talking,[157] New Order with Ceremony[158] in 1981, and The Human League with their 1981 hit Don't You Want Me from their third album Dare.[159]

 
New Order performing in Chile in 2019

The definition of MIDI and the development of digital audio made the development of purely electronic sounds much easier,[160] with audio engineers, producers and composers exploring frequently the possibilities of virtually every new model of electronic sound equipment launched by manufacturers. Synth-pop sometimes used synthesizers to replace all other instruments, but it was more common that bands had one or more keyboardists in their line-ups along with guitarists, bassists, and/or drummers. These developments led to the growth of synth-pop, which after it was adopted by the New Romantic movement, allowed synthesizers to dominate the pop and rock music of the early 1980s until the style began to fall from popularity in the mid-to-end of the decade.[159] Along with the aforementioned successful pioneers, key acts included Yazoo, Duran Duran, Spandau Ballet, Culture Club, Talk Talk, Japan, and Eurythmics.

Synth-pop was taken up across the world, with international hits for acts including Men Without Hats, Trans-X and Lime from Canada, Telex from Belgium, Peter Schilling, Sandra, Modern Talking, Propaganda and Alphaville from Germany, Yello from Switzerland and Azul y Negro from Spain. Also, the synth sound is a key feature of Italo-disco.

Some synth-pop bands created futuristic visual styles of themselves to reinforce the idea of electronic sounds were linked primarily with technology, as Americans Devo and Spaniards Aviador Dro.

Keyboard synthesizers became so common that even heavy metal rock bands, a genre often regarded as the opposite in aesthetics, sound and lifestyle from that of electronic pop artists by fans of both sides, achieved worldwide success with themes as 1983 Jump[161] by Van Halen and 1986 The Final Countdown[162] by Europe, which feature synths prominently.

Proliferation of electronic music research institutions

Elektronmusikstudion [sv] (EMS), formerly known as Electroacoustic Music in Sweden, is the Swedish national centre for electronic music and sound art. The research organisation started in 1964 and is based in Stockholm.

 
IRCAM at the Place Igor Stravinsky, Paris

STEIM is a center for research and development of new musical instruments in the electronic performing arts, located in Amsterdam, Netherlands. STEIM has existed since 1969. It was founded by Misha Mengelberg, Louis Andriessen, Peter Schat, Dick Raaymakers, Jan van Vlijmen [nl], Reinbert de Leeuw, and Konrad Boehmer. This group of Dutch composers had fought for the reformation of Amsterdam's feudal music structures; they insisted on Bruno Maderna's appointment as musical director of the Concertgebouw Orchestra and enforced the first public fundings for experimental and improvised electronic music in the Netherlands.

IRCAM in Paris became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of the Sogitec 4X computer system,[163] featuring then revolutionary real-time digital signal processing. Pierre Boulez's Répons (1981) for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system.

Barry Vercoe describes one of his experiences with early computer sounds:

 
Sogitec 4X (c. 1983)[164] at IRCAM machine room in 1989

At IRCAM in Paris in 1982, flutist Larry Beauregard had connected his flute to DiGiugno's 4X audio processor, enabling real-time pitch-following. On a Guggenheim at the time, I extended this concept to real-time score-following with automatic synchronized accompaniment, and over the next two years Larry and I gave numerous demonstrations of the computer as a chamber musician, playing Handel flute sonatas, Boulez's Sonatine for flute and piano and by 1984 my own Synapse II for flute and computer—the first piece ever composed expressly for such a setup. A major challenge was finding the right software constructs to support highly sensitive and responsive accompaniment. All of this was pre-MIDI, but the results were impressive even though heavy doses of tempo rubato would continually surprise my Synthetic Performer. In 1985 we solved the tempo rubato problem by incorporating learning from rehearsals (each time you played this way the machine would get better). We were also now tracking violin, since our brilliant, young flautist had contracted a fatal cancer. Moreover, this version used a new standard called MIDI, and here I was ably assisted by former student Miller Puckette, whose initial concepts for this task he later expanded into a program called MAX.[165]

Keyboard synthesizers

 
Mini-Moog synthesizer

Released in 1970 by Moog Music, the Mini-Moog was among the first widely available, portable, and relatively affordable synthesizers. It became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music.[166]Patrick Gleeson, playing live with Herbie Hancock at the beginning of the 1970s, pioneered the use of synthesizers in a touring context, where they were subject to stresses the early machines were not designed for.[167][168]

In 1974, the WDR studio in Cologne acquired an EMS Synthi 100 synthesizer, which many composers used to produce notable electronic works—including Rolf Gehlhaar's Fünf deutsche Tänze (1975), Karlheinz Stockhausen's Sirius (1975–1976), and John McGuire's Pulse Music III (1978).[169]

Thanks to miniaturization of electronics in the 1970s, by the start of the 1980s keyboard synthesizers, became lighter and affordable, integrating into a single slim unit all the necessary audio synthesis electronics and the piano-style keyboard itself, in sharp contrast with the bulky machinery and "cable spaguetty" employed along with the 1960s and 1970s. First, with analog synthesizers, the trend followed with digital synthesizers and samplers as well (see below).

Digital synthesizers

In 1975, the Japanese company Yamaha licensed the algorithms for frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis) from John Chowning, who had experimented with it at Stanford University since 1971.[170][171] Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the "key scaling" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation.[172]

In 1980, Yamaha eventually released the first FM digital synthesizer, the Yamaha GS-1, but at an expensive price.[173] In 1983, Yamaha introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, the DX7, which also used FM synthesis and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time.[170] The DX7 was known for its recognizable bright tonalities that was partly due to an overachieving sampling rate of 57 kHz.[174]

 
Yamaha DX7, a model for many digital synthesizers of the 1980s

The Korg Poly-800 is a synthesizer released by Korg in 1983. Its initial list price of $795 made it the first fully programmable synthesizer that sold for less than $1000. It had 8-voice polyphony with one Digitally controlled oscillator (DCO) per voice.

The Casio CZ-101 was the first and best-selling phase distortion synthesizer in the Casio CZ line. Released in November 1984, it was one of the first (if not the first) fully programmable polyphonic synthesizers that was available for under $500.

The Roland D-50 is a digital synthesizer produced by Roland and released in April 1987. Its features include subtractive synthesis, on-board effects, a joystick for data manipulation, and an analogue synthesis-styled layout design. The external Roland PG-1000 (1987–1990) programmer could also be attached to the D-50 for more complex manipulation of its sounds.

Samplers

A sampler is an electronic or digital musical instrument which uses sound recordings (or "samples") of real instrument sounds (e.g., a piano, violin or trumpet), excerpts from recorded songs (e.g., a five-second bass guitar riff from a funk song) or found sounds (e.g., sirens and ocean waves). The samples are loaded or recorded by the user or by a manufacturer. These sounds are then played back using the sampler program itself, a MIDI keyboard, sequencer or another triggering device (e.g., electronic drums) to perform or compose music. Because these samples are usually stored in digital memory, the information can be quickly accessed. A single sample may often be pitch-shifted to different pitches to produce musical scales and chords.

 
Fairlight CMI (1979–)

Before computer memory-based samplers, musicians used tape replay keyboards, which store recordings on analog tape. When a key is pressed the tape head contacts the moving tape and plays a sound. The Mellotron was the most notable model, used by many groups in the late 1960s and the 1970s, but such systems were expensive and heavy due to the multiple tape mechanisms involved, and the range of the instrument was limited to three octaves at the most. To change sounds a new set of tapes had to be installed in the instrument. The emergence of the digital sampler made sampling far more practical.

The earliest digital sampling was done on the EMS Musys system, developed by Peter Grogono (software), David Cockerell (hardware and interfacing), and Peter Zinovieff (system design and operation) at their London (Putney) Studio c. 1969.

The first commercially available sampling synthesizer was the Computer Music Melodian by Harry Mendell (1976).

First released in 1977–1978,[175] the Synclavier I using FM synthesis, re-licensed from Yamaha,[176] and sold mostly to universities, proved to be highly influential among both electronic music composers and music producers, including Mike Thorne, an early adopter from the commercial world, due to its versatility, its cutting-edge technology, and distinctive sounds.

The first polyphonic digital sampling synthesizer was the Australian-produced Fairlight CMI, first available in 1979. These early sampling synthesizers used wavetable sample-based synthesis.[177]

Birth of MIDI

In 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface that new instruments could use to communicate control instructions with other instruments and computers. This standard was dubbed Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) and resulted from a collaboration between leading manufacturers, initially Sequential Circuits, Oberheim, Roland—and later, other participants that included Yamaha, Korg, and Kawai.[178] A paper was authored by Dave Smith of Sequential Circuits and proposed to the Audio Engineering Society in 1981. Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized.

MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer.

MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals. Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via sampling and sampled-ROM-based instruments.

Miller Puckette developed graphic signal-processing software for 4X called Max (after Max Mathews) and later ported it to Macintosh (with Dave Zicarelli extending it for Opcode)[179] for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background.

Sequencers and drum machines

The early 1980s saw the rise of bass synthesizers, the most influential being the Roland TB-303, a bass synthesizer and sequencer released in late 1981 that later became a fixture in electronic dance music,[180] particularly acid house.[181] One of the first to use it was Charanjit Singh in 1982, though it wouldn't be popularized until Phuture's "Acid Tracks" in 1987.[181] Music sequencers began being used around the mid 20th century, and Tomita's albums in mid-1970s being later examples.[144] In 1978, Yellow Magic Orchestra were using computer-based technology in conjunction with a synthesiser to produce popular music,[182] making their early use of the microprocessor-based Roland MC-8 Microcomposer sequencer.[183][184][failed verification]

Drum machines, also known as rhythm machines, also began being used around the late-1950s, with a later example being Osamu Kitajima's progressive rock album Benzaiten (1974), which used a rhythm machine along with electronic drums and a synthesizer.[145] In 1977, Ultravox's "Hiroshima Mon Amour" was one of the first singles to use the metronome-like percussion of a Roland TR-77 drum machine.[153] In 1980, Roland Corporation released the TR-808, one of the first and most popular programmable drum machines. The first band to use it was Yellow Magic Orchestra in 1980, and it would later gain widespread popularity with the release of Marvin Gaye's "Sexual Healing" and Afrika Bambaataa's "Planet Rock" in 1982.[185] The TR-808 was a fundamental tool in the later Detroit techno scene of the late 1980s, and was the drum machine of choice for Derrick May and Juan Atkins.[186]

Chiptunes

The characteristic lo-fi sound of chip music was initially the result of early computer's sound chips and sound cards' technical limitations; however, the sound has since become sought after in its own right.

Common cheap popular sound chips of the first home computers of the 1980s include the SID of the Commodore 64 and General Instrument AY series and clones (like the Yamaha YM2149) used in the ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, MSX compatibles and Atari ST models, among others.

Late 1980s to 1990s

Rise of dance music

Synth-pop continued into the late 1980s, with a format that moved closer to dance music, including the work of acts such as British duos Pet Shop Boys, Erasure and The Communards, achieving success along much of the 1990s.

The trend has continued to the present day with modern nightclubs worldwide regularly playing electronic dance music (EDM). Today, electronic dance music has radio stations,[187] websites,[188] and publications like Mixmag dedicated solely to the genre. Despite the industry's attempt to create a specific EDM brand, the initialism remains in use as an umbrella term for multiple genres, including dance-pop, house, techno, electro, and trance, as well as their respective subgenres.[189][190][191] Moreover, the genre has found commercial and cultural significance in the United States and North America, thanks to the wildly popular big room house/EDM sound that has been incorporated into the U.S. pop music[192] and the rise of large-scale commercial raves such as Electric Daisy Carnival, Tomorrowland and Ultra Music Festival.

Electronica

On the other hand, a broad group of electronic-based music styles intended for listening rather than strictly for dancing became known under the "electronica" umbrella[193][194] which was also a music scene in the early 1990s in the United Kingdom.[194] According to a 1997 Billboard article, "the union of the club community and independent labels" provided the experimental and trend-setting environment in which electronica acts developed and eventually reached the mainstream, citing American labels such as Astralwerks (The Chemical Brothers, Fatboy Slim, The Future Sound of London, Fluke), Moonshine (DJ Keoki), Sims, and City of Angels (The Crystal Method) for popularizing the latest version of electronic music.[citation needed]

2000s and 2010s

 
Weekend Festival, an electronic music event in Pärnu, Estonia, in 2016

As computer technology has become more accessible and music software has advanced, interacting with music production technology is now possible using means that bear no relationship to traditional musical performance practices:[195] for instance, laptop performance (laptronica),[196] live coding[197][198] and Algorave. In general, the term Live PA refers to any live performance of electronic music, whether with laptops, synthesizers, or other devices.

Beginning around the year 2000, some software-based virtual studio environments emerged, with products such as Propellerhead's Reason and Ableton Live finding popular appeal.[199] Such tools provide viable and cost-effective alternatives to typical hardware-based production studios, and thanks to advances in microprocessor technology, it is now possible to create high-quality music using little more than a single laptop computer. Such advances have democratized music creation,[200] leading to a massive increase in the amount of home-produced electronic music available to the general public via the internet. Software-based instruments and effect units (so-called "plugins") can be incorporated in a computer-based studio using the VST platform. Some of these instruments are more or less exact replicas of existing hardware (such as the Roland D-50, ARP Odyssey, Yamaha DX7, or Korg M1). In many cases, these software-based instruments are sonically indistinguishable from their physical counterpart.[clarification needed][citation needed]

Circuit bending

Circuit bending is the modification of battery-powered toys and synthesizers to create new unintended sound effects. It was pioneered by Reed Ghazala in the 1960s and Reed coined the name "circuit bending" in 1992.[201]

Modular synth revival

Following the circuit bending culture, musicians also began to build their own modular synthesizers, causing a renewed interest in the early 1960s designs. Eurorack became a popular system.

See also

Live electronic music

Footnotes

  1. ^ Campbell, Michael (2012). "Electronica and Rap". Popular Music in America: The Beat Goes On (4th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-84002976-8.
  2. ^ "Synthedelia: Psychedelic Electronic Music in the 1960s".
  3. ^ "The stuff of electronic music is electrically produced or modified sounds. ... two basic definitions will help put some of the historical discussion in its place: purely electronic music versus electroacoustic music" (Holmes 2002, p. 6)
  4. ^ Electroacoustic music may also use electronic effect units to change sounds from the natural world, such as the sound of waves on a beach or bird calls. All types of sounds can be used as source material for this music. Electroacoustic performers and composers use microphones, tape recorders, and digital samplers to make live or recorded music. During live performances, natural sounds are modified in real-time using electronic effects and audio consoles. The source of the sound can be anything from ambient noise (traffic, people talking) and nature sounds to live musicians playing conventional acoustic or electro-acoustic instruments (Holmes 2002, p. 8)
  5. ^ "Electronically produced music is part of the mainstream of popular culture. Musical concepts that were once considered radical—the use of environmental sounds, ambient music, turntable music, digital sampling, computer music, the electronic modification of acoustic sounds, and music made from fragments of speech-have now been subsumed by many kinds of popular music. Record store genres including new age, rap, hip-hop, electronica, techno, jazz, and popular song all rely heavily on production values and techniques that originated with classic electronic music" (Holmes 2002, p. 1). "By the 1990s, electronic music had penetrated every corner of musical life. It extended from ethereal sound-waves played by esoteric experimenters to the thumping syncopation that accompanies every pop record" (Lebrecht 1996, p. 106).
  6. ^ "Berlin Love Parade. What happened to the World's Greatest Party?". www.berlinloveparade.com. Retrieved 23 September 2022.
  7. ^ Neill, Ben (2002). "Pleasure Beats: Rhythm and the Aesthetics of Current Electronic Music". Leonardo Music Journal. 12: 3–6. doi:10.1162/096112102762295052. S2CID 57562349.
  8. ^ Holmes 2002, p. 41
  9. ^ Swezey, Kenneth M. (1995). The Encyclopedia Americana – International Edition Vol. 13. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Incorporated. p. 211.; Weidenaar 1995, p. 82
  10. ^ Holmes 2002, p. 47
  11. ^ Busoni 1962, p. 95.
  12. ^ Russcol 1972, pp. 35–36.
  13. ^ "To present the musical soul of the masses, of the great factories, of the railways, of the transatlantic liners, of the battleships, of the automobiles and airplanes. To add to the great central themes of the musical poem the domain of the machine and the victorious kingdom of Electricity." Quoted in Russcol 1972, p. 40.
  14. ^ Russcol 1972, p. 68.
  15. ^ Holmes 2012, p. 18
  16. ^ a b c Holmes 2012, p. 21
  17. ^ Holmes 2012, p. 33; Lee De Forest (1950), Father of radio: the autobiography of Lee de Forest, Wilcox & Follett, pp. 306–307
  18. ^ Roads 2015, p. 204
  19. ^ Holmes 2012, p. 24
  20. ^ Holmes 2012, p. 26
  21. ^ Holmes 2012, p. 28
  22. ^ Toop 2016, "Free lines"
  23. ^ Smirnov 2014, "Russian Electroacoustic Music from the 1930s–2000s"
  24. ^ Holmes 2012, p. 34
  25. ^ Holmes 2012, p. 45
  26. ^ Holmes 2012, p. 46
  27. ^ Jones, Barrie (3 June 2014). The Hutchinson Concise Dictionary of Music. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-95018-7.
  28. ^ Anonymous 2006.
  29. ^ Engel 2006, pp. 4 and 7
  30. ^ Krause 2002 abstract.
  31. ^ Engel & Hammar 2006, p. 6.
  32. ^ Snell 2006, scu.edu
  33. ^ Angus 1984.
  34. ^ a b Young 2007, p. 24
  35. ^ Holmes 2008, pp. 156–157.
  36. ^ Palombini 1993, 14.
  37. ^ "Musique Concrete was created in Paris in 1948 from edited collages of everyday noise" (Lebrecht 1996, p. 107).
  38. ^ NB: To the pioneers, an electronic work did not exist until it was "realized" in a real-time performance (Holmes 2008, p. 122).
  39. ^ Snyder 1998.
  40. ^ Manning 2004, p. 23.
  41. ^ Lange 2009, p. 173.
  42. ^ a b Kurtz 1992, pp. 75–76.
  43. ^ Anonymous 1972.
  44. ^ Eimert 1972, p. 349.
  45. ^ Eimert 1958, p. 2.
  46. ^ Ungeheuer 1992, p. 117.
  47. ^ (Lebrecht 1996, p. 75): "... at Northwest German Radio in Cologne (1953), where the term 'electronic music' was coined to distinguish their pure experiments from musique concrete..."
  48. ^ Stockhausen 1978, pp. 73–76, 78–79.
  49. ^ "In 1967, just following the world premiere of Hymnen, Stockhausen said about the electronic music experience: '... Many listeners have projected that strange new music which they experienced—especially in the realm of electronic music—into extraterrestrial space. Even though they are not familiar with it through human experience, they identify it with the fantastic dream world. Several have commented that my electronic music sounds "like on a different star", or "like in outer space." Many have said that when hearing this music, they have sensations as if flying at an infinitely high speed, and then again, as if immobile in an immense space. Thus, extreme words are employed to describe such experience, which is not "objectively" communicable in the sense of an object description, but rather which exist in the subjective fantasy and which are projected into the extraterrestrial space'" (Holmes 2002, p. 145).
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  • Bogdanov, Vladimir (2001), Chris Woodstra; Stephen Thomas Erlewine; John Bush (eds.), The All Music Guide to Electronica: The Definitive Guide to Electronic Music, AMG Allmusic Series, San Francisco: Backbeat Books, ISBN 0-87930-628-9
  • Brick, Howard (2000), Age of Contradiction: American Thought and Culture in the 1960s, Ithaca: Cornell University Press., ISBN 0-8014-8700-5 (Originally published: New York: Twayne, 1998)
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  • Prendergast, Mark (2001), The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance: The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age, Forward [sic] by Brian Eno., New York: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-0-7475-4213-1, (hardcover eds.) (paper)
  • Rappaport, Scott (2007), "Digital Arts and New Media Grad Students Collaborate Musically across Three Time Zones", UC Santa Cruz Currents Online, no. 2 April
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  • Schaefer, John (1987), New Sounds: A Listener's Guide to New Music, New York: Harper Collins, ISBN 0-06-097081-2
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  • Shapiro, Peter, ed. (2000), Modulations: a History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound, New York: Caipirinha Productions, ISBN 1-891024-06-X
  • Sicko, Dan (1999), Techno Rebels: The Renegades of Electronic Funk, New York: Billboard Books, ISBN 0-8230-8428-0
  • Stevenson, Joseph (2004), Tomita: Biography, AllMusic
  • Strange, Allen (1983), Electronic Music: Systems, Technics, and Controls, second ed. Dubuque, Iowa: W.C. Brown Co. ISBN 978-0-697-03602-5.
  • Tyson, Jeff (n.d.), How Movie Sound Works, Entertainment.howstuffworks.com, retrieved 28 March 2010
  • Verboven, Jos (2014), "The Music Sequencer: What Is It and What Can It Do?", Electronic Music of Brainvoyager, Brainvoyager, retrieved 17 April 2016
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  • Wells, Thomas (1981), The Technique of Electronic Music, New York: Schirmer Books; London: Collier Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-02-872830-8
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External links

  •   Media related to Electronic music at Wikimedia Commons
  • History of Electroacoustic Music – Timeline 26 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  • History and Development of Electronic Music

electronic, music, other, uses, disambiguation, redirects, here, magazine, electronic, musician, genre, music, that, employs, electronic, musical, instruments, digital, instruments, circuitry, based, music, technology, creation, includes, both, music, made, us. For other uses see Electronic music disambiguation Electronic musician redirects here For the magazine see Electronic Musician Electronic music is a genre of music that employs electronic musical instruments digital instruments or circuitry based music technology in its creation It includes both music made using electronic and electromechanical means electroacoustic music Pure electronic instruments depended entirely on circuitry based sound generation for instance using devices such as an electronic oscillator theremin or synthesizer Electromechanical instruments can have mechanical parts such as strings hammers and electric elements including magnetic pickups power amplifiers and loudspeakers Such electromechanical devices include the telharmonium Hammond organ electric piano and the electric guitar 3 4 Electronic musicOther namesElectronica 1 Stylistic originsModernism FuturismDerivative formsAmbient drone dub EDM hip hop new age new wave noise neo soul psychedelic synthedelia 2 Other topicsAvant garde music computer music electronics in rock music experimental music music technology electronic and digital timeline of electronic music genresThe first electronic musical devices were developed at the end of the 19th century During the 1920s and 1930s some electronic instruments were introduced and the first compositions featuring them were written By the 1940s magnetic audio tape allowed musicians to tape sounds and then modify them by changing the tape speed or direction leading to the development of electroacoustic tape music in the 1940s in Egypt and France Musique concrete created in Paris in 1948 was based on editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds Music produced solely from electronic generators was first produced in Germany in 1953 Electronic music was also created in Japan and the United States beginning in the 1950s and Algorithmic composition with computers was first demonstrated in the same decade During the 1960s digital computer music was pioneered innovation in live electronics took place and Japanese electronic musical instruments began to influence the music industry In the early 1970s Moog synthesizers and Japanese drum machines helped popularize synthesized electronic music The 1970s also saw electronic music begin to have a significant influence on popular music with the adoption of polyphonic synthesizers electronic drums drum machines and turntables through the emergence of genres such as disco krautrock new wave synth pop hip hop and EDM In the early 1980s mass produced digital synthesizers such as the Yamaha DX7 became popular and MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface was developed In the same decade with a greater reliance on synthesizers and the adoption of programmable drum machines electronic popular music came to the fore During the 1990s with the proliferation of increasingly affordable music technology electronic music production became an established part of popular culture 5 In Berlin starting in 1989 the Love Parade became the largest street party with over 1 million visitors inspiring other such popular celebrations of electronic music 6 Contemporary electronic music includes many varieties and ranges from experimental art music to popular forms such as electronic dance music Pop electronic music is most recognizable in its 4 4 form and more connected with the mainstream than preceding forms which were popular in niche markets 7 Contents 1 Origins late 19th century to early 20th century 1 1 Early compositions 1 2 Recording experiments 2 Development 1940s to 1950s 2 1 Electroacoustic tape music 2 2 Musique concrete 2 3 Elektronische Musik 2 4 Japan 2 5 United States 2 6 Columbia Princeton Center 2 7 Australia 2 8 Mid to late 1950s 3 Expansion 1960s 3 1 Computer music 3 2 Stochastic music 3 3 Live electronics 3 4 Japanese instruments 3 5 Jamaican dub music 4 Late 1960s to early 1980s 4 1 Rise of popular electronic music 4 2 Proliferation of electronic music research institutions 4 3 Keyboard synthesizers 4 4 Digital synthesizers 4 5 Samplers 4 6 Birth of MIDI 4 7 Sequencers and drum machines 4 8 Chiptunes 5 Late 1980s to 1990s 5 1 Rise of dance music 5 2 Electronica 6 2000s and 2010s 6 1 Circuit bending 6 2 Modular synth revival 7 See also 8 Footnotes 8 1 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External linksOrigins late 19th century to early 20th century Edit Front page of Scientific American in 1907 demonstrating the size operation and popularity of the Telharmonium At the turn of the 20th century experimentation with emerging electronics led to the first electronic musical instruments 8 These initial inventions were not sold but were instead used in demonstrations and public performances The audiences were presented with reproductions of existing music instead of new compositions for the instruments 9 While some were considered novelties and produced simple tones the Telharmonium synthesized the sound of several orchestral instruments with reasonable precision It achieved viable public interest and made commercial progress into streaming music through telephone networks 10 Critics of musical conventions at the time saw promise in these developments Ferruccio Busoni encouraged the composition of microtonal music allowed for by electronic instruments He predicted the use of machines in future music writing the influential Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music 1907 11 12 Futurists such as Francesco Balilla Pratella and Luigi Russolo began composing music with acoustic noise to evoke the sound of machinery They predicted expansions in timbre allowed for by electronics in the influential manifesto The Art of Noises 1913 13 14 Early compositions Edit Leon Theremin demonstrating the theremin in 1927 Developments of the vacuum tube led to electronic instruments that were smaller amplified and more practical for performance 15 In particular the theremin ondes Martenot and trautonium were commercially produced by the early 1930s 16 17 From the late 1920s the increased practicality of electronic instruments influenced composers such as Joseph Schillinger to adopt them They were typically used within orchestras and most composers wrote parts for the theremin that could otherwise be performed with string instruments 16 Avant garde composers criticized the predominant use of electronic instruments for conventional purposes 16 The instruments offered expansions in pitch resources 18 that were exploited by advocates of microtonal music such as Charles Ives Dimitrios Levidis Olivier Messiaen and Edgard Varese 19 20 21 Further Percy Grainger used the theremin to abandon fixed tonation entirely 22 while Russian composers such as Gavriil Popov treated it as a source of noise in otherwise acoustic noise music 23 Recording experiments Edit Developments in early recording technology paralleled that of electronic instruments The first means of recording and reproducing audio was invented in the late 19th century with the mechanical phonograph 24 Record players became a common household item and by the 1920s composers were using them to play short recordings in performances 25 The introduction of electrical recording in 1925 was followed by increased experimentation with record players Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch composed several pieces in 1930 by layering recordings of instruments and vocals at adjusted speeds Influenced by these techniques John Cage composed Imaginary Landscape No 1 in 1939 by adjusting the speeds of recorded tones 26 Composers began to experiment with newly developed sound on film technology Recordings could be spliced together to create sound collages such as those by Tristan Tzara Kurt Schwitters Filippo Tommaso Marinetti Walter Ruttmann and Dziga Vertov Further the technology allowed sound to be graphically created and modified These techniques were used to compose soundtracks for several films in Germany and Russia in addition to the popular Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde in the United States Experiments with graphical sound were continued by Norman McLaren from the late 1930s 27 Development 1940s to 1950s EditElectroacoustic tape music Edit Further information Electroacoustic music and Sound recording and reproduction The first practical audio tape recorder was unveiled in 1935 28 Improvements to the technology were made using the AC biasing technique which significantly improved recording fidelity 29 30 As early as 1942 test recordings were being made in stereo 31 Although these developments were initially confined to Germany recorders and tapes were brought to the United States following the end of World War II 32 These were the basis for the first commercially produced tape recorder in 1948 33 In 1944 before the use of magnetic tape for compositional purposes Egyptian composer Halim El Dabh while still a student in Cairo used a cumbersome wire recorder to record sounds of an ancient zaar ceremony Using facilities at the Middle East Radio studios El Dabh processed the recorded material using reverberation echo voltage controls and re recording What resulted is believed to be the earliest tape music composition 34 The resulting work was entitled The Expression of Zaar and it was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo While his initial experiments in tape based composition were not widely known outside of Egypt at the time El Dabh is also known for his later work in electronic music at the Columbia Princeton Electronic Music Center in the late 1950s 35 Musique concrete Edit Main article Musique concrete See also Acousmatic music Phonogene 1953 a tape machine for modifying the sound structure developed by Pierre Schaeffer et al at GRMC Pierre Schaeffer presenting the Acousmonium 1974 that consisted of 80 loudspeakers for tape playback at GRM Following his work with Studio d Essai at Radiodiffusion Francaise RDF during the early 1940s Pierre Schaeffer is credited with originating the theory and practice of musique concrete In the late 1940s experiments in sound based composition using shellac record players were first conducted by Schaeffer In 1950 the techniques of musique concrete were expanded when magnetic tape machines were used to explore sound manipulation practices such as speed variation pitch shift and tape splicing 36 37 On 5 October 1948 RDF broadcast Schaeffer s Etude aux chemins de fer This was the first movement of Cinq etudes de bruits and marked the beginning of studio realizations 38 and musique concrete or acousmatic art Schaeffer employed a disc cutting lathe four turntables a four channel mixer filters an echo chamber and a mobile recording unit Not long after this Pierre Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer a partnership that would have profound and lasting effects on the direction of electronic music Another associate of Schaeffer Edgard Varese began work on Deserts a work for chamber orchestra and tape The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer s studio and were later revised at Columbia University In 1950 Schaeffer gave the first public non broadcast concert of musique concrete at the Ecole Normale de Musique de Paris Schaeffer used a PA system several turntables and mixers The performance did not go well as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before 39 Later that same year Pierre Henry collaborated with Schaeffer on Symphonie pour un homme seul 1950 the first major work of musique concrete 40 In Paris in 1951 in what was to become an important worldwide trend RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music Also in 1951 Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera Orpheus for concrete sounds and voices By 1951 the work of Schaeffer composer percussionist Pierre Henry and sound engineer Jacques Poullin had received official recognition and The Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrete Club d Essai de la Radiodiffusion Television Francaise was established at RTF in Paris the ancestor of the ORTF 41 Elektronische Musik Edit Karlheinz Stockhausen in the Electronic Music Studio of WDR Cologne in 1991 Karlheinz Stockhausen worked briefly in Schaeffer s studio in 1952 and afterward for many years at the WDR Cologne s Studio for Electronic Music 1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions acoustic instrumentation augmented accompanied by recordings of manipulated or electronically generated sound Three major works were premiered that year Varese s Deserts for chamber ensemble and tape sounds and two works by Otto Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville Symphony and A Poem in Cycles and Bells both for orchestra and tape Because he had been working at Schaeffer s studio the tape part for Varese s work contains much more concrete sounds than electronic A group made up of wind instruments percussion and piano alternate with the mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors coming from two loudspeakers 42 At the German premiere of Deserts in Hamburg which was conducted by Bruno Maderna the tape controls were operated by Karlheinz Stockhausen 42 The title Deserts suggested to Varese not only all physical deserts of sand sea snow of outer space of empty streets but also the deserts in the mind of man not only those stripped aspects of nature that suggest bareness aloofness timelessness but also that remote inner space no telescope can reach where man is alone a world of mystery and essential loneliness 43 In Cologne what would become the most famous electronic music studio in the world was officially opened at the radio studios of the NWDR in 1953 though it had been in the planning stages as early as 1950 and early compositions were made and broadcast in 1951 44 The brainchild of Werner Meyer Eppler Robert Beyer and Herbert Eimert who became its first director the studio was soon joined by Karlheinz Stockhausen and Gottfried Michael Koenig In his 1949 thesis Elektronische Klangerzeugung Elektronische Musik und Synthetische Sprache Meyer Eppler conceived the idea to synthesize music entirely from electronically produced signals in this way elektronische Musik was sharply differentiated from French musique concrete which used sounds recorded from acoustical sources 45 46 In 1953 Stockhausen composed his Studie I followed in 1954 by Elektronische Studie II the first electronic piece to be published as a score In 1955 more experimental and electronic studios began to appear Notable were the creation of the Studio di fonologia musicale di Radio Milano a studio at the NHK in Tokyo founded by Toshiro Mayuzumi and the Philips studio at Eindhoven the Netherlands which moved to the University of Utrecht as the Institute of Sonology in 1960 With Stockhausen and Mauricio Kagel in residence Cologne became a year round hive of charismatic avante gardism 47 on two occasions combining electronically generated sounds with relatively conventional orchestras in Mixtur 1964 and Hymnen dritte Region mit Orchester 1967 48 Stockhausen stated that his listeners had told him his electronic music gave them an experience of outer space sensations of flying or being in a fantastic dream world 49 Japan Edit This section may be confusing or unclear to readers Please help clarify the section There might be a discussion about this on the talk page March 2012 Learn how and when to remove this template message Yamaha Magna Organ and the designated tone cabinet 1935 50 The earliest group of electronic musical instruments in Japan Yamaha Magna Organ was built in 1935 50 however after World War II Japanese composers such as Minao Shibata knew of the development of electronic musical instruments By the late 1940s Japanese composers began experimenting with electronic music and institutional sponsorship enabled them to experiment with advanced equipment Their infusion of Asian music into the emerging genre would eventually support Japan s popularity in the development of music technology several decades later 51 Following the foundation of electronics company Sony in 1946 composers Toru Takemitsu and Minao Shibata independently explored possible uses for electronic technology to produce music 52 Takemitsu had ideas similar to musique concrete which he was unaware of while Shibata foresaw the development of synthesizers and predicted a drastic change in music 53 Sony began producing popular magnetic tape recorders for government and public use 51 54 The avant garde collective Jikken Kōbō Experimental Workshop founded in 1950 was offered access to emerging audio technology by Sony The company hired Toru Takemitsu to demonstrate their tape recorders with compositions and performances of electronic tape music 55 The first electronic tape pieces by the group were Toraware no Onna Imprisoned Woman and Piece B composed in 1951 by Kuniharu Akiyama 56 Many of the electroacoustic tape pieces they produced were used as incidental music for radio film and theatre They also held concerts employing a slide show synchronized with a recorded soundtrack 57 Composers outside of the Jikken Kōbō such as Yasushi Akutagawa Saburo Tominaga and Shirō Fukai were also experimenting with radiophonic tape music between 1952 and 1953 54 Musique concrete was introduced to Japan by Toshiro Mayuzumi who was influenced by a Pierre Schaeffer concert From 1952 he composed tape music pieces for a comedy film a radio broadcast and a radio drama 56 58 However Schaeffer s concept of sound object was not influential among Japanese composers who were mainly interested in overcoming the restrictions of human performance 59 This led to several Japanese electroacoustic musicians making use of serialism and twelve tone techniques 59 evident in Yoshirō Irino s 1951 dodecaphonic piece Concerto da Camera 58 in the organization of electronic sounds in Mayuzumi s X Y Z for Musique Concrete and later in Shibata s electronic music by 1956 60 Modelling the NWDR studio in Cologne established an NHK electronic music studio in Tokyo in 1954 which became one of the world s leading electronic music facilities The NHK electronic music studio was equipped with technologies such as tone generating and audio processing equipment recording and radiophonic equipment ondes Martenot Monochord and Melochord sine wave oscillators tape recorders ring modulators band pass filters and four and eight channel mixers Musicians associated with the studio included Toshiro Mayuzumi Minao Shibata Joji Yuasa Toshi Ichiyanagi and Toru Takemitsu The studio s first electronic compositions were completed in 1955 including Mayuzumi s five minute pieces Studie I Music for Sine Wave by Proportion of Prime Number Music for Modulated Wave by Proportion of Prime Number and Invention for Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave produced using the studio s various tone generating capabilities and Shibata s 20 minute stereo piece Musique Concrete for Stereophonic Broadcast 61 62 United States Edit In the United States electronic music was being created as early as 1939 when John Cage published Imaginary Landscape No 1 using two variable speed turntables frequency recordings muted piano and cymbal but no electronic means of production Cage composed five more Imaginary Landscapes between 1942 and 1952 one withdrawn mostly for percussion ensemble though No 4 is for twelve radios and No 5 written in 1952 uses 42 recordings and is to be realized as a magnetic tape According to Otto Luening Cage also performed Williams Mix at Donaueschingen in 1954 using eight loudspeakers three years after his alleged collaboration clarification needed Williams Mix was a success at the Donaueschingen Festival where it made a strong impression 63 The Music for Magnetic Tape Project was formed by members of the New York School John Cage Earle Brown Christian Wolff David Tudor and Morton Feldman 64 and lasted three years until 1954 Cage wrote of this collaboration In this social darkness therefore the work of Earle Brown Morton Feldman and Christian Wolff continues to present a brilliant light for the reason that at the several points of notation performance and audition action is provocative 65 Cage completed Williams Mix in 1953 while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project 66 The group had no permanent facility and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios including the studio of Bebe and Louis Barron Columbia Princeton Center Edit Further information Columbia Princeton Electronic Music Center See also Vladimir Ussachevsky and RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer In the same year Columbia University purchased its first tape recorder a professional Ampex machine to record concerts Vladimir Ussachevsky who was on the music faculty of Columbia University was placed in charge of the device and almost immediately began experimenting with it Herbert Russcol writes Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another 67 Ussachevsky said later I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation 67 On Thursday 8 May 1952 Ussachevsky presented several demonstrations of tape music effects that he created at his Composers Forum in the McMillin Theatre at Columbia University These included Transposition Reverberation Experiment Composition and Underwater Valse In an interview he stated I presented a few examples of my discovery in a public concert in New York together with other compositions I had written for conventional instruments 67 Otto Luening who had attended this concert remarked The equipment at his disposal consisted of an Ampex tape recorder and a simple box like device designed by the brilliant young engineer Peter Mauzey to create feedback a form of mechanical reverberation Other equipment was borrowed or purchased with personal funds 68 Just three months later in August 1952 Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington Vermont at Luening s invitation to present his experiments There the two collaborated on various pieces Luening described the event Equipped with earphones and a flute I began developing my first tape recorder composition Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations 68 They played some early pieces informally at a party where a number of composers almost solemnly congratulated us saying This is it it meaning the music of the future 68 Word quickly reached New York City Oliver Daniel telephoned and invited the pair to produce a group of short compositions for the October concert sponsored by the American Composers Alliance and Broadcast Music Inc under the direction of Leopold Stokowski at the Museum of Modern Art in New York After some hesitation we agreed Henry Cowell placed his home and studio in Woodstock New York at our disposal With the borrowed equipment in the back of Ussachevsky s car we left Bennington for Woodstock and stayed two weeks In late September 1952 the travelling laboratory reached Ussachevsky s living room in New York where we eventually completed the compositions 68 Two months later on 28 October Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening presented the first Tape Music concert in the United States The concert included Luening s Fantasy in Space 1952 an impressionistic virtuoso piece 68 using manipulated recordings of flute and Low Speed 1952 an exotic composition that took the flute far below its natural range 68 Both pieces were created at the home of Henry Cowell in Woodstock New York After several concerts caused a sensation in New York City Ussachevsky and Luening were invited onto a live broadcast of NBC s Today Show to do an interview demonstration the first televised electroacoustic performance Luening described the event I improvised some flute sequences for the tape recorder Ussachevsky then and there put them through electronic transformations 69 The score for Forbidden Planet by Louis and Bebe Barron 70 was entirely composed using custom built electronic circuits and tape recorders in 1956 but no synthesizers in the modern sense of the word clarification needed Australia Edit CSIRAC Australia s first digital computer displayed at the Melbourne Museum The world s first computer to play music was CSIRAC which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s In 1951 it publicly played the Colonel Bogey March of which no known recordings exist only the accurate reconstruction 71 However CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice CSIRAC was never recorded but the music played was accurately reconstructed The oldest known recordings of computer generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer a commercial version of the Baby Machine from the University of Manchester in the autumn of 1951 72 The music program was written by Christopher Strachey Mid to late 1950s Edit The impact of computers continued in 1956 Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson composed Illiac Suite for string quartet the first complete work of computer assisted composition using algorithmic composition Hiller postulated that a computer could be taught the rules of a particular style and then called on to compose accordingly 73 Later developments included the work of Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories who developed the influential MUSIC I program in 1957 one of the first computer programs to play electronic music Vocoder technology was also a major development in this early era In 1956 Stockhausen composed Gesang der Junglinge the first major work of the Cologne studio based on a text from the Book of Daniel An important technological development of that year was the invention of the Clavivox synthesizer by Raymond Scott with subassembly by Robert Moog In 1957 Kid Baltan Dick Raaymakers and Tom Dissevelt released their debut album Song Of The Second Moon recorded at the Philips studio in the Netherlands 74 The public remained interested in the new sounds being created around the world as can be deduced by the inclusion of Varese s Poeme electronique which was played over four hundred loudspeakers at the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 Brussels World Fair That same year Mauricio Kagel an Argentine composer composed Transicion II The work was realized at the WDR studio in Cologne Two musicians performed on the piano one in the traditional manner the other playing on the strings frame and case Two other performers used tape to unite the presentation of live sounds with the future of prerecorded materials from later on and its past of recordings made earlier in the performance RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer In 1958 Columbia Princeton developed the RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer the first programmable synthesizer 75 Prominent composers such as Vladimir Ussachevsky Otto Luening Milton Babbitt Charles Wuorinen Halim El Dabh Bulent Arel and Mario Davidovsky used the RCA Synthesizer extensively in various compositions 76 One of the most influential composers associated with the early years of the studio was Egypt s Halim El Dabh who 77 after having developed the earliest known electronic tape music in 1944 34 became more famous for Leiyla and the Poet a 1959 series of electronic compositions that stood out for its immersion and seamless fusion of electronic and folk music in contrast to the more mathematical approach used by serial composers of the time such as Babbitt El Dabh s Leiyla and the Poet released as part of the album Columbia Princeton Electronic Music Center in 1961 would be cited as a strong influence by a number of musicians ranging from Neil Rolnick Charles Amirkhanian and Alice Shields to rock musicians Frank Zappa and The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band 78 Following the emergence of differences within the GRMC Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrete Pierre Henry Philippe Arthuys and several of their colleagues resigned in April 1958 Schaeffer created a new collective called Groupe de Recherches Musicales GRM and set about recruiting new members including Luc Ferrari Beatriz Ferreyra Francois Bernard Mache Iannis Xenakis Bernard Parmegiani and Mireille Chamass Kyrou Later arrivals included Ivo Malec Philippe Carson Romuald Vandelle Edgardo Canton and Francois Bayle 79 Expansion 1960s EditSee also Synthesizer Harald Bode Modular synthesizer Buchla and Moog Music These were fertile years for electronic music not just for academia but for independent artists as synthesizer technology became more accessible By this time a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was established and growing 1960 witnessed the composition of Luening s Gargoyles for violin and tape as well as the premiere of Stockhausen s Kontakte for electronic sounds piano and percussion This piece existed in two versions one for 4 channel tape and the other for tape with human performers In Kontakte Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax This new approach which he termed moment form resembles the cinematic splice techniques in early twentieth century film 80 The theremin had been in use since the 1920s but it attained a degree of popular recognition through its use in science fiction film soundtrack music in the 1950s e g Bernard Herrmann s classic score for The Day the Earth Stood Still 81 In the UK in this period the BBC Radiophonic Workshop established in 1958 came to prominence thanks in large measure to their work on the BBC science fiction series Doctor Who One of the most influential British electronic artists in this period 82 was Workshop staffer Delia Derbyshire who is now famous for her 1963 electronic realisation of the iconic Doctor Who theme composed by Ron Grainer Israeli composer Josef Tal at the Electronic Music Studio in Jerusalem c 1965 with Hugh Le Caine s Creative Tape Recorder a sound synthesizer aka Multi track During the time of the UNESCO fellowship for studies in electronic music 1958 Josef Tal went on a study tour in the US and Canada 83 He summarized his conclusions in two articles that he submitted to UNESCO 84 In 1961 he established the Centre for Electronic Music in Israel at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem In 1962 Hugh Le Caine arrived in Jerusalem to install his Creative Tape Recorder in the centre 85 In the 1990s Tal conducted together with Dr Shlomo Markel in cooperation with the Technion Israel Institute of Technology and the Volkswagen Foundation a research project Talmark aimed at the development of a novel musical notation system for electronic music 86 Milton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer his Composition for Synthesizer 1961 which he created using the RCA synthesizer at the Columbia Princeton Electronic Music Center For Babbitt the RCA synthesizer was a dream come true for three reasons First the ability to pinpoint and control every musical element precisely Second the time needed to realize his elaborate serial structures were brought within practical reach Third the question was no longer What are the limits of the human performer but rather What are the limits of human hearing 87 The collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents In 1961 Ussachevsky invited Varese to the Columbia Princeton Studio CPEMC Upon arrival Varese embarked upon a revision of Deserts He was assisted by Mario Davidovsky and Bulent Arel 88 The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the San Francisco Tape Music Center in 1963 by Morton Subotnick with additional members Pauline Oliveros Ramon Sender Anthony Martin and Terry Riley 89 Later the Center moved to Mills College directed by Pauline Oliveros where it is today known as the Center for Contemporary Music 90 Pietro Grossi was an Italian pioneer of computer composition and tape music who first experimented with electronic techniques in the early sixties Grossi was a cellist and composer born in Venice in 1917 He founded the S 2F M Studio de Fonologia Musicale di Firenze in 1963 to experiment with electronic sound and composition Simultaneously in San Francisco composer Stan Shaff and equipment designer Doug McEachern presented the first Audium concert at San Francisco State College 1962 followed by work at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art 1963 conceived of as in time controlled movement of sound in space Twelve speakers surrounded the audience four speakers were mounted on a rotating mobile like construction above 91 In an SFMOMA performance the following year 1964 San Francisco Chronicle music critic Alfred Frankenstein commented the possibilities of the space sound continuum have seldom been so extensively explored 91 In 1967 the first Audium a sound space continuum opened holding weekly performances through 1970 In 1975 enabled by seed money from the National Endowment for the Arts a new Audium opened designed floor to ceiling for spatial sound composition and performance 92 In contrast there are composers who manipulated sound space by locating multiple speakers at various locations in a performance space and then switching or panning the sound between the sources In this approach the composition of spatial manipulation is dependent on the location of the speakers and usually exploits the acoustical properties of the enclosure Examples include Varese s Poeme Electronique tape music performed in the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 World Fair Brussels and Stan Schaff s Audium installation currently active in San Francisco 93 94 Through weekly programs over 4 500 in 40 years Shaff sculpts sound performing now digitized spatial works live through 176 speakers 95 Jean Jacques Perrey experimented with Schaeffer s techniques on tape loops and was among the first to use the recently released Moog synthesizer developed by Robert Moog With this instrument he composed some works with Gershon Kingsley and solo 96 A well known example of the use of Moog s full sized Moog modular synthesizer is the 1968 Switched On Bach album by Wendy Carlos which triggered a craze for synthesizer music 97 In 1969 David Tudor brought a Moog modular synthesizer and Ampex tape machines to the National Institute of Design in Ahmedabad with the support of the Sarabhai family forming the foundation of India s first electronic music studio Here a group of composers Jinraj Joshipura Gita Sarabhai SC Sharma IS Mathur and Atul Desai developed experimental sound compositions between 1969 and 1973 98 Computer music Edit Main article Computer music See also Music N and Algorithmic composition Musical melodies were first generated by the computer CSIRAC in Australia in 1950 There were newspaper reports from America and England early and recently that computers may have played music earlier but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports some of which were obviously speculative Research has shown that people speculated about computers playing music possibly because computers would make noises 99 but there is no evidence that they actually did it 100 101 The world s first computer to play music was CSIRAC which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard in the 1950s Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s In 1951 it publicly played the Colonel Bogey March 102 of which no known recordings exist However CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice which is current computer music practice The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the British National Anthem that was programmed by Christopher Strachey on the Ferranti Mark I late in 1951 Later that year short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a BBC outside broadcasting unit the National Anthem Ba Ba Black Sheep and In the Mood and this is recognised as the earliest recording of a computer to play music This recording can be heard at this Manchester University site Researchers at the University of Canterbury Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard on SoundCloud 103 104 72 The late 1950s 1960s and 1970s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis Starting in 1957 Max Mathews of Bell Labs developed the MUSIC programs culminating in MUSIC V a direct digital synthesis language 105 Laurie Spiegel developed the algorithmic musical composition software Music Mouse 1986 for Macintosh Amiga and Atari computers Stochastic music Edit This section contains information of unclear or questionable importance or relevance to the article s subject matter Please help improve this section by clarifying or removing indiscriminate details If importance cannot be established the section is likely to be moved to another article pseudo redirected or removed Find sources Electronic music news newspapers books scholar JSTOR October 2012 Learn how and when to remove this template message An important new development was the advent of computers to compose music as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds Iannis Xenakis began what is called musique stochastique or stochastic music which is a composing method that uses mathematical probability systems Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters Xenakis used computers to compose pieces like ST 4 for string quartet and ST 48 for orchestra both 1962 106 Morsima Amorsima ST 10 and Atrees He developed the computer system UPIC for translating graphical images into musical results and composed Mycenes Alpha 1978 with it Live electronics Edit Main article Live electronic music In Europe in 1964 Karlheinz Stockhausen composed Mikrophonie I for tam tam hand held microphones filters and potentiometers and Mixtur for orchestra four sine wave generators and four ring modulators In 1965 he composed Mikrophonie II for choir Hammond organ and ring modulators 107 In 1966 1967 Reed Ghazala discovered and began to teach circuit bending the application of the creative short circuit a process of chance short circuiting creating experimental electronic instruments exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm and influenced by John Cage s aleatoric music sic concept 108 Cosey Fanni Tutti s performance art and musical career explored the concept of acceptable music and she went on to explore the use of sound as a means of desire or discomfort 109 failed verification Wendy Carlos performed selections from her album Switched On Bach on stage with a synthesizer with the St Louis Symphony Orchestra another live performance was with Kurzweil Baroque Ensemble for Bach at the Beacon in 1997 110 In June 2018 Suzanne Ciani released LIVE Quadraphonic a live album documenting her first solo performance on a Buchla synthesizer in 40 years It was one of the first quadraphonic vinyl releases in over 30 years 111 Japanese instruments Edit Early electronic organ Yamaha Electone D 1 1959 In the 1950s 112 113 Japanese electronic musical instruments began influencing the international music industry 114 115 Ikutaro Kakehashi who founded Ace Tone in 1960 developed his own version of electronic percussion that had been already popular on the overseas electronic organ 116 At NAMM 1964 he revealed it as the R 1 Rhythm Ace a hand operated percussion device that played electronic drum sounds manually as the user pushed buttons in a similar fashion to modern electronic drum pads 116 117 118 Early drum machine Korg Donca Matic DA 20 1963 In 1963 Korg released the Donca Matic DA 20 an electro mechanical drum machine 119 In 1965 Nippon Columbia patented a fully electronic drum machine 120 Korg released the Donca Matic DC 11 electronic drum machine in 1966 which they followed with the Korg Mini Pops which was developed as an option for the Yamaha Electone electric organ 119 Korg s Stageman and Mini Pops series were notable for natural metallic percussion sounds and incorporating controls for drum breaks and fill ins 115 In 1967 Ace Tone founder Ikutaro Kakehashi patented a preset rhythm pattern generator using diode matrix circuit 121 similar to the Seeburg s prior U S Patent 3 358 068 filed in 1964 See Drum machine History which he released as the FR 1 Rhythm Ace drum machine the same year 116 It offered 16 preset patterns and four buttons to manually play each instrument sound cymbal claves cowbell and bass drum The rhythm patterns could also be cascaded together by pushing multiple rhythm buttons simultaneously and the possible combination of rhythm patterns were more than a hundred 116 Ace Tone s Rhythm Ace drum machines found their way into popular music from the late 1960s followed by Korg drum machines in the 1970s 115 Kakehashi later left Ace Tone and founded Roland Corporation in 1972 with Roland synthesizers and drum machines becoming highly influential for the next several decades 116 The company would go on to have a big impact on popular music and do more to shape popular electronic music than any other company 118 Direct drive turntable Technics SL 1200 introduced in 1972 Turntablism has origins in the invention of direct drive turntables Early belt drive turntables were unsuitable for turntablism since they had a slow start up time and they were prone to wear and tear and breakage as the belt would break from backspin or scratching 122 The first direct drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata an engineer at Matsushita now Panasonic 123 based in Osaka Japan It eliminated belts and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests 124 In 1969 Matsushita released it as the SP 10 124 the first direct drive turntable on the market 125 and the first in their influential Technics series of turntables 124 It was succeeded by the Technics SL 1100 and SL 1200 in the early 1970s and they were widely adopted by hip hop musicians 124 with the SL 1200 remaining the most widely used turntable in DJ culture for several decades 126 Jamaican dub music Edit Main article Dub music See also Sound system Jamaican In Jamaica a form of popular electronic music emerged in the 1960s dub music rooted in sound system culture Dub music was pioneered by studio engineers such as Sylvan Morris King Tubby Errol Thompson Lee Scratch Perry and Scientist producing reggae influenced experimental music with electronic sound technology in recording studios and at sound system parties 127 Their experiments included forms of tape based composition comparable to aspects of musique concrete an emphasis on repetitive rhythmic structures often stripped of their harmonic elements comparable to minimalism the electronic manipulation of spatiality the sonic electronic manipulation of pre recorded musical materials from mass media deejays toasting over pre recorded music comparable to live electronic music 127 remixing music 128 turntablism 129 and the mixing and scratching of vinyl 130 Despite the limited electronic equipment available to dub pioneers such as King Tubby and Lee Scratch Perry their experiments in remix culture were musically cutting edge 128 King Tubby for example was a sound system proprietor and electronics technician whose small front room studio in the Waterhouse ghetto of western Kingston was a key site of dub music creation 131 Late 1960s to early 1980s EditRise of popular electronic music Edit Main articles Electronic rock Synth pop Electropop Electro music and House music See also Progressive rock Krautrock Space rock and Contemporary electronic music In the late 1960s pop and rock musicians including the Beach Boys and the Beatles began to use electronic instruments like the theremin and Mellotron to supplement and define their sound In his book Electronic and Experimental Music Thom Holmes recognises the Beatles 1966 recording Tomorrow Never Knows as the song that ushered in a new era in the use of electronic music in rock and pop music due to the band s incorporation of tape loops and reversed and speed manipulated tape sounds 132 Also in the late 1960s the music duo Silver Apples and experimental rock bands like White Noise and the United States of America are regarded as pioneers in the electronic rock and electronica genres for their work in melding psychedelic rock with oscillators and synthesizers 133 134 135 The 1969 instrumental Popcorn written by Gershon Kingsley for Music To Moog By became a worldwide success due to the 1972 version made by Hot Butter 136 137 Keith Emerson performing in Saint Petersburg in 2008 By the end of the 1960s the Moog synthesizer took a leading place in the sound of emerging progressive rock with bands including Pink Floyd Yes Emerson Lake amp Palmer and Genesis making them part of their sound Instrumental prog rock was particularly significant in continental Europe allowing bands like Kraftwerk Tangerine Dream Can Neu and Faust to circumvent the language barrier 138 Their synthesiser heavy krautrock along with the work of Brian Eno for a time the keyboard player with Roxy Music would be a major influence on subsequent electronic rock 139 Ambient dub was pioneered by King Tubby and other Jamaican sound artists using DJ inspired ambient electronics complete with drop outs echo equalization and psychedelic electronic effects It featured layering techniques and incorporated elements of world music deep basslines and harmonic sounds 140 Techniques such as a long echo delay were also used 141 Other notable artists within the genre include Dreadzone Higher Intelligence Agency The Orb Ott Loop Guru Woob and Transglobal Underground 142 Dub music influenced electronic musical techniques later adopted by hip hop music when Jamaican immigrant DJ Kool Herc in the early 1970s introduced Jamaica s sound system culture and dub music techniques to America One such technique that became popular in hip hop culture was playing two copies of the same record on two turntables in alternation extending the b dancers favorite section 143 The turntable eventually went on to become the most visible electronic musical instrument and occasionally the most virtuosic in the 1980s and 1990s 129 Electronic rock was also produced by several Japanese musicians including Isao Tomita s Electric Samurai Switched on Rock 1972 which featured Moog synthesizer renditions of contemporary pop and rock songs 144 and Osamu Kitajima s progressive rock album Benzaiten 1974 145 The mid 1970s saw the rise of electronic art music musicians such as Jean Michel Jarre Vangelis Tomita and Klaus Schulze who were significant influences on the development of new age music 140 The hi tech appeal of these works created for some years the trend of listing the electronic musical equipment employed in the album sleeves as a distinctive feature Electronic music began to enter regularly in radio programming and top sellers charts as the French band Space with their debut studio album Magic Fly 146 or Jarre with Oxygene 147 Between 1977 and 1981 Kraftwerk released albums such as Trans Europe Express The Man Machine or Computer World which influenced subgenres of electronic music 148 In this era the sound of rock musicians like Mike Oldfield and The Alan Parsons Project who is credited the first rock song to feature a digital vocoder in 1975 The Raven used to be arranged and blended with electronic effects and or music as well which became much more prominent in the mid 1980s Jeff Wayne achieved a long lasting success 149 with his 1978 electronic rock musical version of The War of the Worlds Film scores also benefit from the electronic sound During the 1970s and 1980s Wendy Carlos composed the score for A Clockwork Orange The Shining and Tron 150 In 1977 Gene Page recorded a disco version of the hit theme by John Williams from Steven Spielberg film Close Encounters of the Third Kind Page s version peaked on the R amp B chart at 30 citation needed The score of 1978 film Midnight Express composed by Italian synth pioneer Giorgio Moroder won the Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1979 as did it again in 1981 the score by Vangelis for Chariots of Fire 151 After the arrival of punk rock a form of basic electronic rock emerged increasingly using new digital technology to replace other instruments The American duo Suicide who arose from the punk scene in New York utilized drum machines and synthesizers in a hybrid between electronics and punk on their eponymous 1977 album 152 Synth pop pioneering bands which enjoyed success for years included Ultravox with their 1977 track Hiroshima Mon Amour on Ha Ha Ha 153 Yellow Magic Orchestra with their self titled album 1978 The Buggles with their prominent 1979 debut single Video Killed the Radio Star 154 Gary Numan with his solo debut album The Pleasure Principle and single Cars in 1979 155 Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark with their 1979 single Electricity featured on their eponymous debut album Depeche Mode with their first single Dreaming of Me recorded in 1980 and released in 1981 album Speak amp Spell 156 A Flock of Seagulls with their 1981 single Talking 157 New Order with Ceremony 158 in 1981 and The Human League with their 1981 hit Don t You Want Me from their third album Dare 159 New Order performing in Chile in 2019 The definition of MIDI and the development of digital audio made the development of purely electronic sounds much easier 160 with audio engineers producers and composers exploring frequently the possibilities of virtually every new model of electronic sound equipment launched by manufacturers Synth pop sometimes used synthesizers to replace all other instruments but it was more common that bands had one or more keyboardists in their line ups along with guitarists bassists and or drummers These developments led to the growth of synth pop which after it was adopted by the New Romantic movement allowed synthesizers to dominate the pop and rock music of the early 1980s until the style began to fall from popularity in the mid to end of the decade 159 Along with the aforementioned successful pioneers key acts included Yazoo Duran Duran Spandau Ballet Culture Club Talk Talk Japan and Eurythmics Synth pop was taken up across the world with international hits for acts including Men Without Hats Trans X and Lime from Canada Telex from Belgium Peter Schilling Sandra Modern Talking Propaganda and Alphaville from Germany Yello from Switzerland and Azul y Negro from Spain Also the synth sound is a key feature of Italo disco Some synth pop bands created futuristic visual styles of themselves to reinforce the idea of electronic sounds were linked primarily with technology as Americans Devo and Spaniards Aviador Dro Keyboard synthesizers became so common that even heavy metal rock bands a genre often regarded as the opposite in aesthetics sound and lifestyle from that of electronic pop artists by fans of both sides achieved worldwide success with themes as 1983 Jump 161 by Van Halen and 1986 The Final Countdown 162 by Europe which feature synths prominently Proliferation of electronic music research institutions Edit Elektronmusikstudion sv EMS formerly known as Electroacoustic Music in Sweden is the Swedish national centre for electronic music and sound art The research organisation started in 1964 and is based in Stockholm IRCAM at the Place Igor Stravinsky Paris STEIM is a center for research and development of new musical instruments in the electronic performing arts located in Amsterdam Netherlands STEIM has existed since 1969 It was founded by Misha Mengelberg Louis Andriessen Peter Schat Dick Raaymakers Jan van Vlijmen nl Reinbert de Leeuw and Konrad Boehmer This group of Dutch composers had fought for the reformation of Amsterdam s feudal music structures they insisted on Bruno Maderna s appointment as musical director of the Concertgebouw Orchestra and enforced the first public fundings for experimental and improvised electronic music in the Netherlands IRCAM in Paris became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of the Sogitec 4X computer system 163 featuring then revolutionary real time digital signal processing Pierre Boulez s Repons 1981 for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system Barry Vercoe describes one of his experiences with early computer sounds Sogitec 4X c 1983 164 at IRCAM machine room in 1989 At IRCAM in Paris in 1982 flutist Larry Beauregard had connected his flute to DiGiugno s 4X audio processor enabling real time pitch following On a Guggenheim at the time I extended this concept to real time score following with automatic synchronized accompaniment and over the next two years Larry and I gave numerous demonstrations of the computer as a chamber musician playing Handel flute sonatas Boulez s Sonatine for flute and piano and by 1984 my own Synapse II for flute and computer the first piece ever composed expressly for such a setup A major challenge was finding the right software constructs to support highly sensitive and responsive accompaniment All of this was pre MIDI but the results were impressive even though heavy doses of tempo rubato would continually surprise my Synthetic Performer In 1985 we solved the tempo rubato problem by incorporating learning from rehearsals each time you played this way the machine would get better We were also now tracking violin since our brilliant young flautist had contracted a fatal cancer Moreover this version used a new standard called MIDI and here I was ably assisted by former student Miller Puckette whose initial concepts for this task he later expanded into a program called MAX 165 Keyboard synthesizers Edit Mini Moog synthesizer See also Modular synthesizer Buchla Electronic Music Studios and Korg Released in 1970 by Moog Music the Mini Moog was among the first widely available portable and relatively affordable synthesizers It became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music 166 Patrick Gleeson playing live with Herbie Hancock at the beginning of the 1970s pioneered the use of synthesizers in a touring context where they were subject to stresses the early machines were not designed for 167 168 In 1974 the WDR studio in Cologne acquired an EMS Synthi 100 synthesizer which many composers used to produce notable electronic works including Rolf Gehlhaar s Funf deutsche Tanze 1975 Karlheinz Stockhausen s Sirius 1975 1976 and John McGuire s Pulse Music III 1978 169 Thanks to miniaturization of electronics in the 1970s by the start of the 1980s keyboard synthesizers became lighter and affordable integrating into a single slim unit all the necessary audio synthesis electronics and the piano style keyboard itself in sharp contrast with the bulky machinery and cable spaguetty employed along with the 1960s and 1970s First with analog synthesizers the trend followed with digital synthesizers and samplers as well see below Digital synthesizers Edit See also Digital synthesizer Digitally controlled oscillator Additive synthesis Implementations Subtractive synthesis Phase distortion synthesis and Bell Labs Digital Synthesizer In 1975 the Japanese company Yamaha licensed the algorithms for frequency modulation synthesis FM synthesis from John Chowning who had experimented with it at Stanford University since 1971 170 171 Yamaha s engineers began adapting Chowning s algorithm for use in a digital synthesizer adding improvements such as the key scaling method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation 172 In 1980 Yamaha eventually released the first FM digital synthesizer the Yamaha GS 1 but at an expensive price 173 In 1983 Yamaha introduced the first stand alone digital synthesizer the DX7 which also used FM synthesis and would become one of the best selling synthesizers of all time 170 The DX7 was known for its recognizable bright tonalities that was partly due to an overachieving sampling rate of 57 kHz 174 Yamaha DX7 a model for many digital synthesizers of the 1980s The Korg Poly 800 is a synthesizer released by Korg in 1983 Its initial list price of 795 made it the first fully programmable synthesizer that sold for less than 1000 It had 8 voice polyphony with one Digitally controlled oscillator DCO per voice The Casio CZ 101 was the first and best selling phase distortion synthesizer in the Casio CZ line Released in November 1984 it was one of the first if not the first fully programmable polyphonic synthesizers that was available for under 500 The Roland D 50 is a digital synthesizer produced by Roland and released in April 1987 Its features include subtractive synthesis on board effects a joystick for data manipulation and an analogue synthesis styled layout design The external Roland PG 1000 1987 1990 programmer could also be attached to the D 50 for more complex manipulation of its sounds Samplers Edit See also Sampling music Fairlight CMI and Synclavier A sampler is an electronic or digital musical instrument which uses sound recordings or samples of real instrument sounds e g a piano violin or trumpet excerpts from recorded songs e g a five second bass guitar riff from a funk song or found sounds e g sirens and ocean waves The samples are loaded or recorded by the user or by a manufacturer These sounds are then played back using the sampler program itself a MIDI keyboard sequencer or another triggering device e g electronic drums to perform or compose music Because these samples are usually stored in digital memory the information can be quickly accessed A single sample may often be pitch shifted to different pitches to produce musical scales and chords Fairlight CMI 1979 Before computer memory based samplers musicians used tape replay keyboards which store recordings on analog tape When a key is pressed the tape head contacts the moving tape and plays a sound The Mellotron was the most notable model used by many groups in the late 1960s and the 1970s but such systems were expensive and heavy due to the multiple tape mechanisms involved and the range of the instrument was limited to three octaves at the most To change sounds a new set of tapes had to be installed in the instrument The emergence of the digital sampler made sampling far more practical The earliest digital sampling was done on the EMS Musys system developed by Peter Grogono software David Cockerell hardware and interfacing and Peter Zinovieff system design and operation at their London Putney Studio c 1969 The first commercially available sampling synthesizer was the Computer Music Melodian by Harry Mendell 1976 First released in 1977 1978 175 the Synclavier I using FM synthesis re licensed from Yamaha 176 and sold mostly to universities proved to be highly influential among both electronic music composers and music producers including Mike Thorne an early adopter from the commercial world due to its versatility its cutting edge technology and distinctive sounds The first polyphonic digital sampling synthesizer was the Australian produced Fairlight CMI first available in 1979 These early sampling synthesizers used wavetable sample based synthesis 177 Birth of MIDI Edit Main article MIDI In 1980 a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface that new instruments could use to communicate control instructions with other instruments and computers This standard was dubbed Musical Instrument Digital Interface MIDI and resulted from a collaboration between leading manufacturers initially Sequential Circuits Oberheim Roland and later other participants that included Yamaha Korg and Kawai 178 A paper was authored by Dave Smith of Sequential Circuits and proposed to the Audio Engineering Society in 1981 Then in August 1983 the MIDI Specification 1 0 was finalized MIDI technology allows a single keystroke control wheel motion pedal movement or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and synchrony with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via sampling and sampled ROM based instruments Miller Puckette developed graphic signal processing software for 4X called Max after Max Mathews and later ported it to Macintosh with Dave Zicarelli extending it for Opcode 179 for real time MIDI control bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background Sequencers and drum machines Edit Main articles Music sequencer and Drum machine This article s factual accuracy is disputed Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced December 2011 Learn how and when to remove this template message The early 1980s saw the rise of bass synthesizers the most influential being the Roland TB 303 a bass synthesizer and sequencer released in late 1981 that later became a fixture in electronic dance music 180 particularly acid house 181 One of the first to use it was Charanjit Singh in 1982 though it wouldn t be popularized until Phuture s Acid Tracks in 1987 181 Music sequencers began being used around the mid 20th century and Tomita s albums in mid 1970s being later examples 144 In 1978 Yellow Magic Orchestra were using computer based technology in conjunction with a synthesiser to produce popular music 182 making their early use of the microprocessor based Roland MC 8 Microcomposer sequencer 183 184 failed verification Drum machines also known as rhythm machines also began being used around the late 1950s with a later example being Osamu Kitajima s progressive rock album Benzaiten 1974 which used a rhythm machine along with electronic drums and a synthesizer 145 In 1977 Ultravox s Hiroshima Mon Amour was one of the first singles to use the metronome like percussion of a Roland TR 77 drum machine 153 In 1980 Roland Corporation released the TR 808 one of the first and most popular programmable drum machines The first band to use it was Yellow Magic Orchestra in 1980 and it would later gain widespread popularity with the release of Marvin Gaye s Sexual Healing and Afrika Bambaataa s Planet Rock in 1982 185 The TR 808 was a fundamental tool in the later Detroit techno scene of the late 1980s and was the drum machine of choice for Derrick May and Juan Atkins 186 Chiptunes Edit Main article Chiptune See also Video game music The characteristic lo fi sound of chip music was initially the result of early computer s sound chips and sound cards technical limitations however the sound has since become sought after in its own right Common cheap popular sound chips of the first home computers of the 1980s include the SID of the Commodore 64 and General Instrument AY series and clones like the Yamaha YM2149 used in the ZX Spectrum Amstrad CPC MSX compatibles and Atari ST models among others Late 1980s to 1990s EditRise of dance music Edit Main article Electronic dance music Synth pop continued into the late 1980s with a format that moved closer to dance music including the work of acts such as British duos Pet Shop Boys Erasure and The Communards achieving success along much of the 1990s The trend has continued to the present day with modern nightclubs worldwide regularly playing electronic dance music EDM Today electronic dance music has radio stations 187 websites 188 and publications like Mixmag dedicated solely to the genre Despite the industry s attempt to create a specific EDM brand the initialism remains in use as an umbrella term for multiple genres including dance pop house techno electro and trance as well as their respective subgenres 189 190 191 Moreover the genre has found commercial and cultural significance in the United States and North America thanks to the wildly popular big room house EDM sound that has been incorporated into the U S pop music 192 and the rise of large scale commercial raves such as Electric Daisy Carnival Tomorrowland and Ultra Music Festival Electronica Edit On the other hand a broad group of electronic based music styles intended for listening rather than strictly for dancing became known under the electronica umbrella 193 194 which was also a music scene in the early 1990s in the United Kingdom 194 According to a 1997 Billboard article the union of the club community and independent labels provided the experimental and trend setting environment in which electronica acts developed and eventually reached the mainstream citing American labels such as Astralwerks The Chemical Brothers Fatboy Slim The Future Sound of London Fluke Moonshine DJ Keoki Sims and City of Angels The Crystal Method for popularizing the latest version of electronic music citation needed 2000s and 2010s Edit Weekend Festival an electronic music event in Parnu Estonia in 2016 As computer technology has become more accessible and music software has advanced interacting with music production technology is now possible using means that bear no relationship to traditional musical performance practices 195 for instance laptop performance laptronica 196 live coding 197 198 and Algorave In general the term Live PA refers to any live performance of electronic music whether with laptops synthesizers or other devices Beginning around the year 2000 some software based virtual studio environments emerged with products such as Propellerhead s Reason and Ableton Live finding popular appeal 199 Such tools provide viable and cost effective alternatives to typical hardware based production studios and thanks to advances in microprocessor technology it is now possible to create high quality music using little more than a single laptop computer Such advances have democratized music creation 200 leading to a massive increase in the amount of home produced electronic music available to the general public via the internet Software based instruments and effect units so called plugins can be incorporated in a computer based studio using the VST platform Some of these instruments are more or less exact replicas of existing hardware such as the Roland D 50 ARP Odyssey Yamaha DX7 or Korg M1 In many cases these software based instruments are sonically indistinguishable from their physical counterpart clarification needed citation needed Circuit bending Edit Circuit bending is the modification of battery powered toys and synthesizers to create new unintended sound effects It was pioneered by Reed Ghazala in the 1960s and Reed coined the name circuit bending in 1992 201 Modular synth revival Edit Following the circuit bending culture musicians also began to build their own modular synthesizers causing a renewed interest in the early 1960s designs Eurorack became a popular system See also Edit Music portalClavioline Electronic sackbut List of electronic music genres New Interfaces for Musical Expression Ondioline Spectral music Tracker music Timeline of electronic music genresLive electronic musicList of electronic music festivals Live electronic musicFootnotes Edit Campbell Michael 2012 Electronica and Rap Popular Music in America The Beat Goes On 4th ed Cengage Learning ISBN 978 0 84002976 8 Synthedelia Psychedelic Electronic Music in the 1960s The stuff of electronic music is electrically produced or modified sounds two basic definitions will help put some of the historical discussion in its place purely electronic music versus electroacoustic music Holmes 2002 p 6 Electroacoustic music may also use electronic effect units to change sounds from the natural world such as the sound of waves on a beach or bird calls All types of sounds can be used as source material for this music Electroacoustic performers and composers use microphones tape recorders and digital samplers to make live or recorded music During live performances natural sounds are modified in real time using electronic effects and audio consoles The source of the sound can be anything from ambient noise traffic people talking and nature sounds to live musicians playing conventional acoustic or electro acoustic instruments Holmes 2002 p 8 Electronically produced music is part of the mainstream of popular culture Musical concepts that were once considered radical the use of environmental sounds ambient music turntable music digital sampling computer music the electronic modification of acoustic sounds and music made from fragments of speech have now been subsumed by many kinds of popular music Record store genres including new age rap hip hop electronica techno jazz and popular song all rely heavily on production values and techniques that originated with classic electronic music Holmes 2002 p 1 By the 1990s electronic music had penetrated every corner of musical life It extended from ethereal sound waves played by esoteric experimenters to the thumping syncopation that accompanies every pop record Lebrecht 1996 p 106 Berlin Love Parade What happened to the World s Greatest Party www berlinloveparade com Retrieved 23 September 2022 Neill Ben 2002 Pleasure Beats Rhythm and the Aesthetics of Current Electronic Music Leonardo Music Journal 12 3 6 doi 10 1162 096112102762295052 S2CID 57562349 Holmes 2002 p 41 Swezey Kenneth M 1995 The Encyclopedia Americana International Edition Vol 13 Danbury Connecticut Grolier Incorporated p 211 Weidenaar 1995 p 82 Holmes 2002 p 47 Busoni 1962 p 95 Russcol 1972 pp 35 36 To present the musical soul of the masses of the great factories of the railways of the transatlantic liners of the battleships of the automobiles and airplanes To add to the great central themes of the musical poem the domain of the machine and the victorious kingdom of Electricity Quoted in Russcol 1972 p 40 Russcol 1972 p 68 Holmes 2012 p 18 a b c Holmes 2012 p 21 Holmes 2012 p 33 Lee De Forest 1950 Father of radio the autobiography of Lee de Forest Wilcox amp Follett pp 306 307 Roads 2015 p 204 Holmes 2012 p 24 Holmes 2012 p 26 Holmes 2012 p 28 Toop 2016 Free lines Smirnov 2014 Russian Electroacoustic Music from the 1930s 2000s Holmes 2012 p 34 Holmes 2012 p 45 Holmes 2012 p 46 Jones Barrie 3 June 2014 The Hutchinson Concise Dictionary of Music Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 95018 7 Anonymous 2006 Engel 2006 pp 4 and 7 Krause 2002 abstract Engel amp Hammar 2006 p 6 Snell 2006 scu edu Angus 1984 a b Young 2007 p 24 Holmes 2008 pp 156 157 Palombini 1993 14 Musique Concrete was created in Paris in 1948 from edited collages of everyday noise Lebrecht 1996 p 107 NB To the pioneers an electronic work did not exist until it was realized in a real time performance Holmes 2008 p 122 Snyder 1998 Manning 2004 p 23 sfn error no target CITEREFManning2004 help Lange 2009 p 173 a b Kurtz 1992 pp 75 76 Anonymous 1972 Eimert 1972 p 349 Eimert 1958 p 2 Ungeheuer 1992 p 117 Lebrecht 1996 p 75 at Northwest German Radio in Cologne 1953 where the term electronic music was coined to distinguish their pure experiments from musique concrete Stockhausen 1978 pp 73 76 78 79 In 1967 just following the world premiere of Hymnen Stockhausen said about the electronic music experience Many listeners have projected that strange new music which they experienced especially in the realm of electronic music into extraterrestrial space Even though they are not familiar with it through human experience they identify it with the fantastic dream world Several have commented that my electronic music sounds like on a different star or like in outer space Many have said that when hearing this music they have sensations as if flying at an infinitely high speed and then again as if immobile in an immense space Thus extreme words are employed to describe such experience which is not objectively communicable in the sense of an object description but rather which exist in the subjective fantasy and which are projected into the extraterrestrial space Holmes 2002 p 145 a b Before the Second World War in Japan several electrical instruments seem already to have been developed see ja 電子音楽 黎明期 and in 1935 a kind of electronic musical instrument the Yamaha Magna Organ was developed It seems to be a multi timbral keyboard instrument based on electrically blown free reeds with pickups possibly similar to the electrostatic reed organs developed by Frederick Albert Hoschke in 1934 then manufactured by Everett and Wurlitzer until 1961 一時代を画する新楽器完成 浜松の青年技師山下氏 An epoch defining new musical instrument was developed by a young engineer Mr Yamashita in Hamamatsu Hochi Shimbun in Japanese 8 June 1935 新電氣樂器 マグナオルガンの御紹介 New Electric Musical Instrument Introduction of the Magna Organ in Japanese Hamamatsu 日本樂器製造株式會社 Yamaha October 1935 特許第一 八六六四号 同 第一一 六八号 同 第一一一二一六号 a b Holmes 2008 p 106 Holmes 2008 pp 106 115 Fujii 2004 pp 64 66 a b Fujii 2004 p 66 Holmes 2008 pp 106 107 a b Holmes 2008 p 107 Fujii 2004 pp 66 67 a b Fujii 2004 p 64 a b Fujii 2004 p 65 Holmes 2008 p 108 Holmes 2008 pp 108 114 115 Loubet 1997 p 11 Luening 1968 p 136 Johnson 2002 p 2 Johnson 2002 p 4 Carolyn Brown Earle Brown s wife was to dance in Cunningham s company while Brown himself was to participate in Cage s Project for Music for Magnetic Tape funded by Paul Williams dedicatee of the 1953 Williams Mix who like Robert Rauschenberg was a former student of Black Mountain College which Cage and Cunnigham had first visited in the summer of 1948 Johnson 2002 p 20 a b c Russcol 1972 p 92 a b c d e f Luening 1968 p 48 Luening 1968 p 49 From at least Louis and Bebbe Barron s soundtrack for The Forbidden Planet onwards electronic music in particular synthetic timbre has impersonated alien worlds in film Norman 2004 p 32 Doornbusch 2005 p 25 a b Fildes 2008 Schwartz 1975 p 347 Harris 2018 Holmes 2008 pp 145 146 Rhea 1980 p 64 Holmes 2008 p 153 Holmes 2008 pp 153 154 157 Gayou 2007a p 207 Kurtz 1992 p 1 Glinsky 2000 p 286 Delia Derbyshire Audiological Chronology Improved scans Israel State Archives PDF Improved scans Israel State Archives PDF Gluck 2005 pp 164 165 Tal amp Markel 2002 pp 55 62 Schwartz 1975 p 124 Bayly 1982 1983 p 150 sfn error no target CITEREFBayly1982 1983 help Electronic music didierdanse net Retrieved 10 June 2019 A central figure in post war electronic art music Pauline Oliveros b 1932 is one of the original members of the San Francisco Tape Music Center along with Morton Subotnick Ramon Sender Terry Riley and Anthony Martin which was the resource on the U S west coast for electronic music during the 1960s The Center later moved to Mills College where she was its first director and is now called the Center for Contemporary 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Up at the NCC Hancock and Apple II Make Music Together InfoWorld vol 4 no 26 5 July pp 1 5Further reading EditAnkeny Jason 2010 Kraftwerk Biography Allmusic com Ankeny Jason 2020 Yellow Magic Orchestra Biography Allmusic com Anonymous 2001 Theremin BBC h2g2 encyclopaedia project retrieved 20 May 2008 Guide ID A520831 Edited Anonymous 2007 Inventing the Wire Recorder recording history org Recording History The History of Recording Technology archived from the original on 14 May 2013 retrieved 5 June 2011 Bassingthwaighte Sarah Louise 2002 Electroacoustic Music for the Flute DMA dissertation Seattle University of Washington retrieved 29 December 2011 Blumroder Christoph von 2017 Die elektroakustische Musik Eine kompositorische Revolution und ihre Folgen Signale aus Koln Beitrage zur Musik der Zeit in German Vol 22 Vienna Verlag Der Apfel ISBN 978 3 85450 422 1 Bogdanov Vladimir 2001 Chris Woodstra Stephen Thomas Erlewine John Bush eds The All Music Guide to Electronica The Definitive Guide to Electronic Music AMG Allmusic Series San Francisco Backbeat Books ISBN 0 87930 628 9 Brick Howard 2000 Age of Contradiction American Thought and Culture in the 1960s Ithaca Cornell University Press ISBN 0 8014 8700 5 Originally published New York Twayne 1998 Bush John Tomita Biography billboard com archived from the original on 14 November 2011 retrieved 5 June 2011 Bush John Snowflakes Are Dancing Electronic Performances of Debussy s Tone Paintings Isao Tomita Allmusic com Bush John 2009 Song Review Blue Monday Allmusic website Chadabe Joel 1997 Electric Sound The Past and Promise of Electronic Music Upper Saddle River New Jersey Prentice Hall Chekalin Mikhael n d A Patterson Light amp Sound itunes apple com Best of Electronic Music Crab Simon 2005 The Hammond Novachord 1939 120years net 120 Years of Electronic Music archived from the original on 22 July 2011 retrieved 5 June 2011 Cummins James 2008 Ambrosia About a Culture An Investigation of Electronica Music and Party Culture Toronto Ontario Clark Nova Books ISBN 978 0 9784892 1 2 Donhauser Peter 2007 Elektrische Klangmaschinen Vienna Boehlau Dorschel Andreas Gerhard Eckel and Deniz Peters eds 2012 Bodily Expression in Electronic Music Perspectives on Reclaiming Performativity Routledge Research in Music 2 London and New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 89080 9 Emmerson Simon 1986 The Language of Electroacoustic Music London Macmillan Emmerson Simon ed 2000 Music Electronic Media and Culture Aldershot Hampshire Burlington Vermont Ashgate ISBN 0 7546 0109 9 Griffiths Paul 1995 Modern Music and After Directions Since 1945 Oxford and New York Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 816578 1 Hammar Peter 1999 John T Mullin The Man Who Put Bing Crosby on Tape Mix Online no 1 October archived from the original on 31 January 2010 retrieved 13 January 2010 Heifetz Robin J ed 1989 On The Wires of Our Nerves The Art of Electroacoustic Music Cranbury New Jersey Associated University Presses ISBN 0 8387 5155 5 Kahn Douglas 1999 Noise Water Meat A History of Sound in the Arts Cambridge Massachusetts MIT Press ISBN 0 262 11243 4 New edition 2001 Kettlewell Ben 2001 Electronic Music Pioneers N p Course Technology Inc ISBN 1 931140 17 0 Licata Thomas ed 2002 Electroacoustic Music Analytical Perspectives Westport Connecticut Greenwood Press ISBN 0 313 31420 9 Ortonng Otto 1964 Some Random Remarks About Electronic Music Journal of Music Theory 8 1 Spring 89 98 doi 10 2307 842974 JSTOR 842974 Macan Edward L 1997 Rocking the Classics English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture Oxford and New York Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 509887 0 Manning Peter 2004 Electronic and Computer Music Revised and expanded ed Oxford and New York Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 514484 8 cloth pbk Orton Richard Davies Hugh 2001 Ondes martenot Grove Music Online Oxford Music Online retrieved 2 February 2011 subscription required Peyser Joan 1995 The Music of My Time White Plains New York Pro AM Music Resources London Kahn and Averill ISBN 978 0 912483 99 3 Prendergast Mark 2001 The Ambient Century From Mahler to Trance The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age Forward sic by Brian Eno New York Bloomsbury ISBN 978 0 7475 4213 1 hardcover eds paper Rappaport Scott 2007 Digital Arts and New Media Grad Students Collaborate Musically across Three Time Zones UC Santa Cruz Currents Online no 2 April Reid Gordon 2004 The History Of Roland Part 1 1930 1978 Sound on Sound November retrieved 19 June 2011 Reynolds Simon 1998 Energy Flash A Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture London Pan Macmillan ISBN 0 330 35056 0 US title Generation Ecstasy Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture Boston Little Brown 1998 ISBN 0 316 74111 6 New York Routledge 1999 ISBN 0 415 92373 5 Rosen Jody 27 March 2008 Researchers Play Tune Recorded before Edison The New York Times Russolo Luigi 1913 L arte dei rumori manifesto futurista Manifesti del movimento futurista 14 Milan Direzione del movimento futurista English version as Russolo 1967 The Art of Noise Futurist Manifesto 1913 A Great Bear Pamphlet 18 translated by Robert Filliou New York Something Else Press Second English version as Russolo 1986 The Art of Noises Monographs in Musicology no 6 translated from the Italian with an introduction by Barclay Brown New York Pendragon Press ISBN 0 918728 57 6 Schaefer John 1987 New Sounds A Listener s Guide to New Music New York Harper Collins ISBN 0 06 097081 2 Shanken Edward A 2009 Art and Electronic Media London Phaidon ISBN 978 0 7148 4782 5 Shapiro Peter ed 2000 Modulations a History of Electronic Music Throbbing Words on Sound New York Caipirinha Productions ISBN 1 891024 06 X Sicko Dan 1999 Techno Rebels The Renegades of Electronic Funk New York Billboard Books ISBN 0 8230 8428 0 Stevenson Joseph 2004 Tomita Biography AllMusic Strange Allen 1983 Electronic Music Systems Technics and Controls second ed Dubuque Iowa W C Brown Co ISBN 978 0 697 03602 5 Tyson Jeff n d How Movie Sound Works Entertainment howstuffworks com retrieved 28 March 2010 Verboven Jos 2014 The Music Sequencer What Is It and What Can It Do Electronic Music of Brainvoyager Brainvoyager retrieved 17 April 2016 Watson Scott 2005 A Return to Modernism Music Education Technology Magazine February archived from the original on 10 January 2008 Wells Thomas 1981 The Technique of Electronic Music New York Schirmer Books London Collier Macmillan ISBN 978 0 02 872830 8 Zimmer Dave 2000 Crosby Stills and Nash The Authorized Biography Photography by Henry Diltz New York Da Capo Press ISBN 0 306 80974 5External links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Electronic music Media related to Electronic music at Wikimedia Commons History of Electroacoustic Music Timeline Archived 26 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Electronic Music Foundation History and Development of Electronic Music Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Electronic music amp oldid 1129460025, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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