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Wikipedia

Education

Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits. There are many debates about its precise definition, for example, about which aims it tries to achieve. A further issue is whether part of the meaning of education is that the change in the student is an improvement. Some researchers stress the role of critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination. These disagreements affect how to identify, measure, and improve forms of education. The term can also refer to the mental states and qualities of educated people. Additionally, it can mean the academic field studying education.

Left to right, from top: Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Czech Technical University, in Prague, Czech Republic; School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktia Province, Afghanistan; Student participants in the FIRST Robotics Competition, Washington, D.C.; Early childhood education through USAID in Ziway, Ethiopia

There are many types of education. Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework, like public schools. Non-formal education is also structured but happens outside the formal schooling system. Informal education is unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are divided into levels. They include early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education. Other classifications focus on the teaching method, like teacher-centered and student-centered education. Forms of education can also be distinguished by subject, like science education, language education, and physical education.

Education socializes children into society by teaching cultural values and norms. It equips them with the skills needed to become productive members of society. This way, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems. Organized institutions affect many aspects of education. For example, governments set education policies. They determine when school classes happen, what is taught, and who can or must attend. International organizations, like UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary education for all children.

Many factors influence whether education is successful. Psychological factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality. Social factors, like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender, are often linked to discrimination. Further factors include educational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement.

The main field investigating education is called education studies. It examines what education is and what aims it has. It also studies how it happens, what effects it has, and how to improve it. It has many subfields, like philosophy of education, psychology of education, sociology of education, economics of education, and comparative education. It also discusses the history of education. In pre-history, education happened informally through oral communication and imitation. With the rise of ancient civilizations, writing was invented and the amount of knowledge grew. This caused a shift from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was mainly available to elites and religious groups. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century made books more widely available. This increased general literacy. Beginning in the 18th and 19th centuries, public education became more important. It led to the worldwide process of making primary education available to all, free of charge, and compulsory up to a certain age.

Definitions

Theorists from various fields have tried to define education.[1][2][3] Many agree that education is a purposeful activity trying to achieve certain aims. These aims include the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits.[4][1][5] However, there are deep disagreements about its exact nature besides these general features. According to some theorists, it is primarily a process that occurs during events like schooling, teaching, and learning.[6][7][2] Others understand it not as a process but as the product caused by this process. This means that education is what educated persons have. It includes the mental states and dispositions that are characteristic of them.[6][7][2] The term may also refer to an academic field. This discipline studies the methods and processes taking place during teaching and learning. It examines the social institutions involved in these processes.[7] The term "education" is derived from the Latin term educare. It means "bring up, rear, educate", primarily in relation to the mind. It is also connected to the Latin term educere. It means "bring out, lead forth" and refers to the bodily level.[8]

Some theorists provide precise definitions by giving the exact features that are shared by all forms of education and only by them. According to R. S. Peters, for example, education has three essential features. (1) It is concerned with the transmission of knowledge and understanding. (2) This transmission is worthwhile. (3) It is done in a morally appropriate manner in tune with the student's interests.[9][10][1] Such precise definitions often succeed at characterizing the most typical forms of education. But they are criticized because there are counterexamples.[10][11][2] These difficulties have led some theorists to develop less precise concepts. Some of them are based on family resemblance. This means that all the forms of education are similar to each other. But they need not share a set of essential features that all of them have in common.[1][12][13] Some theorists claim that the term "education" is context-dependent. This implies that its meaning varies depending on the situation in which it is used.[2] Having a clear idea of what the term means is important to correctly identify forms of education. It also matters when trying to measure or improve them.[14][15][16]

There is disagreement in the academic literature on whether education is an evaluative concept. This means that being good in some sense is part of the definition of education. So-called thick definitions affirm this. They may claim, for example, that an improvement of the learner is a requirement of education. Different thick definitions may still disagree among themselves on what kind of improvement is needed. Thin definitions, on the other hand, try to give a value-neutral account of education.[15][17] A closely related distinction is that between descriptive and prescriptive conceptions. Descriptive conceptions aim to describe how the term is actually used by regular speakers. Prescriptive conceptions try to express what good education is or how it should be done.[4][18]

Many thick and prescriptive conceptions rely on the aims of education to explain their view. This means that they see education as an activity that tries to achieve certain aims.[19][20][21] These aims can be classified into different categories. There is one category for epistemic goods, like knowledge and understanding. Another category covers skills, like rationality and critical thinking. Additionally, there are character traits, like kindness and honesty.[15]

Some theorists focus on a single overarching purpose of education and see the more specific aims as means to this end.[22][20] For example, they may claim that socialization is the aim of education. This means that education is seen as the process of transmitting accumulated knowledge from one generation to the next. This process helps the student to function in society as a regular citizen.[4][23][2] More person-centered definitions focus on the well-being of the student instead. For them, education is a process that helps them lead a good life or the life they wish to lead.[4][22][2] Various scholars stress critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination.[20][21][24] For them, mere indoctrination is only interested in instilling beliefs in the student, independent of whether they are rational.[20][19] Education, on the other hand, should also foster the rational ability to critically reflect on those beliefs and question them.[25] But some theorists contend that some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education. It may be needed until the child's mind is sufficiently developed.[20]

Education can be characterized from the teacher's or the student's perspective. Teacher-centered definitions focus on the perspective and role of the teacher. They may claim, for example, that education is the transmission of knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate way.[26][2][9] Student-centered definitions, on the other hand, see education from the student's experience in the learning process. For example, they may define it as a process that transforms and enriches their subsequent experience.[27][10][28] Definitions taking both perspectives into account are also possible. This can take the form of describing the process as the shared experience of a common world. This shared experience involves discovery as well as posing and solving problems.[10][26][29]

Types

There are many classifications of education. It depends on the institutional framework whether education is formal, non-formal, or informal. Levels of education are distinguished based on factors like the student's age and the complexity of the content. Some classifications focus on the learner or the topic. Others rely on the teaching method, the medium used, or the funding.[30]

Formal, non-formal, and informal

 
 
Tutoring is an example of non-formal education while learning how to cook from ones parents belongs to informal education.

Education is often divided into types. The most common division is between formal, non-formal, and informal education.[31] However, some theorists only distinguish between formal and informal education.[32] Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework. Such frameworks have a chronological and hierarchical order. For instance, the modern schooling system has classes based on the student's age and progress, all the way from primary school to university. Formal education is usually controlled and guided by the government. It is normally compulsory up to a certain age.[33][34]

Non-formal and informal education take place outside the formal schooling system. Non-formal education is a middle ground. Like formal education, it is organized, systematic, and carried out with a clear purpose in mind. Examples are tutoring, fitness classes, and the scouting movement.[35] Informal education, on the other hand, happens in an unsystematic way through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is usually no designated authority figure responsible for teaching.[36] Informal education is present in many settings. It happens throughout one's life, mostly in a spontaneous way. This is how children learn their mother tongue from their parents or how people learn to prepare a dish by cooking together.[33][34][2]

Some theorists distinguish the three types based on the location of learning. Formal education takes place in school. Informal education occurs in places of everyday routines. Non-formal education happens in places that are occasionally visited.[36] There are also differences in the source of motivation. Formal education is mainly driven by extrinsic motivation for external rewards. Non-formal and informal education are closely linked to intrinsic motivation because the learning itself is enjoyed.[36] The distinction between the three types is normally clear for the typical cases. But some forms of education do not easily fall into one category.[33][36]

Formal education plays a central role in modern civilization. But in primitive cultures, most of the education happened on the informal level.[23][37][38] This usually means that there is no distinction between activities focused on education and other activities. Instead, the whole environment acts as a form of school and most adults act as teachers. However, informal education is often not efficient enough to pass on large quantities of knowledge. To do so, a formal setting and well-trained teachers are usually required. This was one of the reasons why in the course of history, formal education became more and more important. In this process, the experience of education became more abstract and removed from daily life. More emphasis was put on grasping general patterns instead of observing and imitating behavior.[23][37]

Levels

Types of education are often divided into levels or stages. The most influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education. It is maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). It covers both formal and non-formal education. It distinguishes levels based on the student's age, the duration of learning, and the complexity of the discussed content. Further criteria include entry requirements, teacher qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The levels are grouped together into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2-3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5-8).[39][40][41]

 
Young children in a kindergarten in Japan

Early childhood education is also known as preschool education or nursery education. It is the stage of education that begins with birth and lasts until the start of primary school. It follows the holistic aim of fostering early child development at the physical, mental, and social levels. It plays a key role in socialization and personality development. It includes various basic skills in the areas of communication, learning, and problem-solving. This way, it prepares children for their entry into primary education.[42]

Primary (or elementary) education usually starts at the age of five to seven and lasts for four to seven years. It does not have any further entry requirements. Its main goal is to teach the basic skills in the fields of reading, writing, and mathematics. But it also covers the core knowledge in other fields, like history, geography, the sciences, music, and art. A further aim is to foster personal development.[43][39][44] Today, primary education is compulsory in almost all countries. Over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school.[45]

Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education. It usually covers the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is commonly divided into lower secondary education (middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (high school, senior high school, or college depending on the country). Lower secondary education normally has the completion of primary school as its entry requirement. It aims to extend and deepen the learning outcomes. It is more strongly focused on subject-specific curricula and teachers are specialized in only one or a few specific subjects. One of its aims is to familiarize students with the basic theoretical concepts in these fields. This helps create a solid basis for lifelong learning. In some cases, it also includes vocational training.[39][46][47] In many countries, it is the last stage of compulsory education.[48][49]

 
A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in Calhan, Colorado, United States

Upper secondary education aims to provide students with the skills and knowledge needed for employment or tertiary education. Its requirement is usually the completion of lower secondary education. Its subjects are more varied and complex. The students can often choose between a few subjects. Its successful completion is commonly tied to a formal qualification in the form of a high school diploma.[39][50][51] There are some types of education after secondary education that do not belong to tertiary education. They are often similar in complexity to secondary education. But they tend to focus more on vocational training to prepare students for the job market.[52][53]

Tertiary education is also referred to as higher education. It expands upon the foundations of secondary education but has a more narrow and in-depth focus on a specific field or subject. Its completion leads to an academic degree. It can be divided into four levels: short-cycle tertiary, Bachelor's, Master's, and doctoral level education. They often form a hierarchical structure with later levels depending on the completion of previous levels.[54][39][55]

Short-cycle tertiary education focuses on practical matters. It includes advanced vocational and professional training to prepare students for the job market in specialized professions.[56][39][57] Bachelor's level education is also referred to as undergraduate education. It tends to be longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is usually offered by universities and results in an intermediary academic certification in the form of a Bachelor's degree.[58][39][59] Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education. Many programs require independent research in the form of a Master's thesis as a requirement for successful completion.[60][39][61] Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, normally in the form of a doctor's degree. It usually requires the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation.[62][39][63]

Others

Many other types of education are discussed in the academic literature, like the distinction between traditional and alternative education. Traditional education concerns long-established and mainstream schooling practices. It uses teacher-centered education and takes place in a well-regulated school environment. Regulations cover many aspects of education, such as the curriculum and the timeframe when classes start and end.[64][65]

 
Homeschooling is one form of alternative education.

Alternative education is an umbrella term for forms of schooling that differ from the mainstream traditional approach. For example, they may use a different learning environment, teach different subjects, or promote a different teacher-student relationship. Alternative schooling is characterized by voluntary participation, relatively small class and school sizes, and personalized instruction. This often results in a more welcoming and emotionally safe atmosphere. It encompasses many types like charter schools and special programs for problematic or gifted children. It also includes homeschooling and unschooling. For instance, Montessori schools, Waldorf schools, and Round Square schools are alternative schools. Further examples are Escuela Nueva schools, free schools, and democratic schools.[66] Alternative education also includes indigenous education. It focuses on the transmission of knowledge and skills from an indigenous heritage. Its method gives more emphasis to narration and storytelling.[67][68][69]

Other distinctions are based on who receives education. Categories by the age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education.[70][71][72] Special education is education that is specifically adapted to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities. It covers various forms of impairments on the intellectual, social, communicative, and physical levels. It aims to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments. This way, it provides the affected students with access to an appropriate education. When understood in the broadest sense, it also includes education for very gifted children who need adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential.[73][74][75]

Some classifications focus on the teaching method. In teacher-centered education, for example, the teacher takes center stage in providing students with information. It contrasts with student-centered education, in which students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities.[76] For conscious education, learning and teaching happen with a clear purpose in mind. Unconscious education, on the other hand, occurs on its own without being consciously planned or guided.[77] This may happen in part through the personality of teachers and adults. Their personality can have indirect effects on the development of the student's personality.[78]

Autodidacticism or self-education is self-directed learning. It happens without the guidance of teachers and institutions. It mainly occurs in adult education. It is characterized by the freedom to choose what and when to study. For this reason, it can be a more fulfilling learning experience. However, the lack of structure and guidance can result in aimless learning. Due to the absence of external feedback, autodidacts may develop false ideas and inaccurately assess their learning progress.[79] It is closely related to lifelong education, which is an ongoing learning process throughout a person's entire life.[80][81]

Forms of education can also be categorized by the subject and the medium used. Types based on the subject include science education, language education, art education, religious education, and physical education.[82][83][84] Special mediums are usually used in distance education. Examples include e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. They often take the form of open education, where the courses and materials are made available with a minimal amount of barriers. They contrast with regular classroom or onsite education.[85]

A further distinction is based on the type of funding. Public education is also referred to as state education. It is education funded and controlled by the government. It is available to the general public. It normally does not require tuition fees and is thus a form of free education. It contrasts with private education, which is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools often have a more selective admission process. Many offer paid education by charging tuition fees.[86] A more detailed classification focuses on the social institution responsible for education. It includes categories for institutions like family, school, civil society, state, and church.[87][88]

Compulsory education is education that people are legally required to receive. It concerns mainly children who need to visit school up to a certain age. It contrasts with voluntary education, which people pursue by personal choice without a legal requirement.[89][90][91]

Evidence-based education uses well-designed scientific studies to determine which methods of education work best. Its goal is to maximize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies. This is achieved by ensuring that they are informed by the best available empirical evidence. It includes evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research.[92][93][94]

Role in society

Education plays various roles in society, including in social, economic, and personal fields. On a social level, education makes it possible to establish and sustain a stable society. It helps people acquire the basic skills needed to interact with their environment and fulfill their needs and desires. In modern society, this involves a wide range of skills like being able to speak, read, and write as well as to solve problems and to perform basic arithmetic tasks. It also includes the ability to handle information and communications technology. Children are socialized into society by acquiring these skills. Another key part of socialization is to learn how to live in social groups and interact with others by coming to understand social and cultural norms and expectations. This requires an understanding of what kinds of behavior are considered appropriate in different contexts. This way, new members are introduced to the culture, norms, and values that are dominant in their society. Socialization happens throughout life but is of special relevance to early childhood education. It enables a form of social cohesion, stability, and peace needed for people to productively engage in their daily business. Education plays a key role in democracies by increasing civic participation in the form of voting and organizing and through its tendency to promote equal opportunity for all.[95]

A further issue is to enable people to become productive members of society by learning how to contribute to it. Through education, individuals acquire the technical and analytical skills needed to pursue their profession, produce goods, and provide services to others. In early societies, there was little specialization and each child would generally learn most of the tasks relevant to help their group. Modern societies are increasingly complex and many professions are only mastered by relatively few people who receive specialized training in addition to general education. Some of the skills and tendencies learned to function in society may conflict with each other and their value depends on the context of their usage. For example, fostering a questioning mind is necessary to develop the ability of critical thinking but in some cases, obedience to an authority is required to ensure social stability.[96][97][98]

By helping people become productive members of society, education can stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty. It helps workers become more skilled and thereby increases the quality of the produced goods and services, which in turn leads to prosperity and increased competitiveness.[99] In this regard, public education is often understood as a long-term investment to benefit society as a whole. The rate of return is especially high for investments in primary education.[100][97] Besides increasing economic prosperity, it can also lead to technological and scientific advances as well as decrease unemployment while promoting social equity.[101]

Education can prepare a country to adapt to changes and successfully face new challenges. For example, it can help raise awareness and contribute to the solution of contemporary global problems. Examples are climate change and sustainability as well as the widening inequalities between the rich and the poor.[102][103][104] By making students aware of how their lives and actions affect others, it may inspire some to work toward realizing a more sustainable and fair world.[105] This way, education serves not just the purpose of reproducing society as it is but can also be an instrument of development by realizing social transformation to improve society.[106] This applies also to changing circumstances in the economic sector. For example, due to technological advances and increased automation, many jobs may be lost in the coming decades.[107] This may render currently taught skills and knowledge redundant while shifting the importance to other areas. Education can be used to prepare people for such changes by adjusting the curriculum. This way, subjects involving digital literacy and skills in handling new technologies can be promoted.[108][109][110] Another example is online education in the form of massive open online courses.[111]

On a more individual level, education promotes personal development. This can include factors such as learning new skills, developing talents, fostering creativity, and increasing self-knowledge as well as improving problem-solving and decision-making abilities.[112][113] It further has positive effects on health and well-being.[114] While education is of high relevance in childhood, it does not end with adulthood and continues throughout life. This phenomenon is known as lifelong learning. It is of specific significance in contemporary society due to the rapid changes on many levels and the need for people to adjust to them.[115][116][117]

The social importance of education is recognized in the annual International Day of Education on January 24. The year 1970 was declared International Education Year.[118][119]

Role of institutions

 
Beijing Normal University, which is governed directly by the Chinese Ministry of Education, is an example of collaboration between different entities in the education sector.

Organized institutions play a key role for various aspects of education. Institutions like schools, universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education make up the education sector. They interact both with each other and with other stakeholders, such as parents, local communities, and religious groups. Further stakeholders are NGOs, professionals in healthcare, law enforcement, media platforms, and political leaders. Many people are directly involved in the education sector. They include students, teachers, and school principals as well as school nurses and curriculum developers.[120][121]

Many aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions. They determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, like infrastructure. Regulations also cover the exact requirements for teachers and how they are trained. An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a planned sequence of instructions or a program of learning that intends to guide the experience of learners to achieve the aims of education. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. For example, the goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a comprehensive and well-rounded education while vocational trainings focus more on specific practical skills within a field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to the students.[122]

International organizations also play a key role in education. For example, UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education in many ways. One of its activities is to advocate education policies. One example is the treaty UNCRC. It states that education is a human right of all children and young people. Another is the Education for All initiative. It aimed to offer basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by the year 2015. It was later replaced by the initiative Sustainable Development Goals as goal 4.[123] Related policies include the Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative.[124][125]

Some influential organizations are not intergovernmental but non-governmental. For example, the International Association of Universities promotes the exchange of colleges and universities around the world. The International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs.[126][127][128] Many institutions, like the Erasmus Programme, facilitate student exchanges between countries.[129]

Factors of educational success

Many factors influence educational achievement. They include psychological factors, which concern the student as an individual, and sociological factors, which pertain to the student's social environment. Further factors include access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement. Many of these factors overlap and influence each other.[130]

Psychological

On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality.[131] Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning.[132][133][134] Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, which often results in a deeper understanding of the subject. It can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction is between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards. They may strive for good grades and recognition by their peers. It is often claimed that intrinsic motivation is more beneficial by leading to increased creativity and engagement as well as long-term commitment.[135] Educational psychologists try to discover how to increase motivation. This can be achieved by encouraging some competition among students. Another factor is to balance positive and negative feedback in the form of praise and criticism.[132][136]

Intelligence is another important factor in how people respond to education. It is a mental quality linked to the ability to learn from experience, to understand, and to employ knowledge and skills to solve problems. Those who have higher scores in intelligence metrics tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education.[137] Intelligence is often primarily associated with the so-called IQ, a standardized numerical metric for assessing intelligence. However, it has been argued that there different types of intelligences pertaining to distinct areas. According to Howard Gardner, some affect the areas of mathematics, logic, and spatial cognition. Others concern language and music. There are also distinct types for interacting with other people and with oneself. These forms are largely independent of each other. This means that someone may excel at one type while scoring low on another.[138][139]

A closely related factor concerns learning styles. A learning style is a preferred form of acquiring knowledge and skills. For example, students with an auditory learning style find it easy to follow spoken lectures and discussions while visual learners benefit if information is presented visually in diagrams and videos. For efficient learning, it is often beneficial to include a wide variety of learning modalities.[140][141][142] The learner's personality may also affect educational achievement. For example, the features of conscientiousness and openness to experience from the Big Five personality traits are linked to academic success.[143] Further mental factors include self-efficacy, self-esteem, and metacognitive abilities.[131][144]

Sociological

Unlike psychological factors, sociological factors focus not on the mental attributes of learners but on their social status and environment. They include socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and cultural background as well as gender. They are of interest to researchers since they are associated with inequality and discrimination. For this reason, they play a key role in policy-making in attempts to mitigate their effects.[145]

Socioeconomic status depends on income but includes other factors as well, such as financial security, social status, and social class as well as quality of life attributes. Low socioeconomic status affects educational success in various ways. It is linked to slower cognitive developments in language and memory and higher dropout rates. Poor families may not have enough money to invest in educational resources like stimulating toys, books, and computers. Additionally, they may be unable to afford tuition at prestigious schools and are more likely to attend schools in poorer areas. Such schools tend to offer lower standards of teaching, for example, because of teacher shortages or because they lack educational materials and facilities, like libraries. Poor parents may also be unable to afford private lessons if their children lack behind. Students from a low socioeconomic status often have less access to information on higher education and may face additional difficulties in securing and repaying student loans. Low socioeconomic status also has many indirect negative effects because it is linked to lower physical and mental health. Due to these factors, social inequalities on the level of the parents are often reproduced in the children.[146][147][148]

Ethnic background is linked to cultural differences and language barriers, which make it more difficult for students to adapt to the school environment and follow classes. Additional factors are explicit and implicit biases and discrimination toward ethnic minorities. This may affect the students' self-esteem and motivation as well as their access to educational opportunities. For example, teachers may hold stereotypical views even if they are not overtly racist, which can lead them to grade comparable performances differently based on the child's ethnicity.[149]

Historically, gender has been a central factor in education since the roles of males and females were defined differently in many societies. Education tended to strongly favor males, who were expected to provide for the family. Females, on the other hand, were expected to manage the household and rear children, which severely hampered the educational opportunities available to them. And while these inequalities have improved in most modern societies, there are still gender differences in education. Among other things, this concerns biases and stereotypes linked to the role of gender in education. An example is that subjects like science, technology, engineering, and mathematics are often presented as male fields. This discourages female students to follow them.[150][151][152]

One aspect of many social factors is given by the expectations associated with stereotypes. On the one hand, they work on an external level based on how people react to a person belonging to a certain group. On the other hand, they also affect the internal level because the person internalizes them and acts accordingly. In this sense, the expectations may turn into self-fulfilling prophecies by causing the educational outcomes they anticipate. This can happen both for positive and for negative stereotypes.[153][154]

Technology and others

Technology plays another significant role in educational success. Educational technology is commonly associated with the use of modern digital devices, like computers. But understood in the broadest sense, it involves a wide range of resources and tools for learning, including basic aids that do not involve the use of machines, like regular books and worksheets.[155][156]

 
The OLPC laptop being introduced to children in Haiti

Educational technology can benefit learning in various ways. In the form of media, it often takes the role of the primary supplier of information in the classroom. This means that the teacher can focus their time and energy on other tasks, like planning the lesson and guiding students as well as assessing educational performance.[155] It can also make information easier to understand, for example, by presenting it using graphics and videos rather than through mere text. In this regard, interactive elements may be used to make the learning experience more engaging, for example, in the form of educational games. Technology can be employed to make educational materials accessible to many people, like when using online resources. It additionally facilitates collaboration between students and communication with teachers.[157][158][159] Lack of educational technology is an issue specifically in various developing countries and many efforts are made to address it, like the One Laptop per Child initiative.[160][161][162]

A closely related issue concerns the effects of school infrastructure. It includes various physical aspects of the school, like its location and size as well as the available school facilities and equipment. For example, a healthy and safe environment, well-maintained classrooms, and suitable classroom furniture as well as the availability of a library and a canteen tend to contribute to educational success.[163][164] The quality of the teacher also has an important impact on educational success. For example, skilled teachers are able to motivate and inspire students and are able to adjust their instructions to the students' abilities and needs. Important in this regard are the teacher's own education and training as well as their past teaching experience.[165] A meta-analysis by Engin Karadağ et al. concludes that, compared to other influences, factors related to the school and the teacher have the biggest impact on student achievement.[166]

An additional factor to boost educational achievement is parent involvement. It can make children more motivated and invested if they are aware that their parents care about their educational efforts. This tends to lead to increased self-esteem, better attendance rates, and more constructive behavior at school. Parent involvement also includes communication with teachers and other school staff, for example, to make other parties aware of current issues and how they may be resolved.[167][168][169] Further relevant factors sometimes discussed in the academic literature include historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal aspects.[170][171]

Education studies

 
John Locke's book Some Thoughts Concerning Education from 1693 is one of the foundational works of education studies.[172]

The main discipline investigating education is called education studies, also referred to as education sciences. It tries to determine how people transmit and acquire knowledge by studying the methods and forms of education. It is interested in its aims, effects, and value as well as the cultural, societal, governmental, and historical contexts that shape education.[173] Education theorists integrate insights from many other fields of inquiry, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, history, politics, and international relations. Because of these influences, some theorists claim that education studies is not an independent academic discipline like physics or history since its method and subject are not as clearly defined.[174][175] Education studies differs from regular training programs, such as teacher training, since its focus on academic analysis and critical reflection goes beyond the skills needed to be a good teacher. It is not restricted to the topic of formal education but examines all forms and aspects of education.[176][177][178]

Various research methods are used to study educational phenomena. They can roughly be divided into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches. Quantitative research emulates the methods found in the natural sciences by using precise numerical measurements to gather data from many observations and employs statistical tools to analyze it. It aims to arrive at an objective and impersonal understanding. Qualitative research usually has a much smaller sample size and tries to get an in-depth insight into more subjective and personal factors, like how different actors experience the process of education. Mixed-methods research aims to combine data gathered from both approaches to arrive at a balanced and comprehensive understanding. Data can be gathered in various ways, like using direct observation or test scores as well as interviews and questionnaires.[179][180] Research can be employed to study basic factors affecting all forms of education, examine specific applications, look for solutions to concrete problems, and evaluate the effectiveness of projects.[181]

Subfields

Education studies encompasses various subfields like philosophy of education, pedagogy, psychology of education, sociology of education, economics of education, comparative education, and history of education.[182][183] The philosophy of education is the branch of applied philosophy that examines many of the basic assumptions underlying the theory and practice of education. It studies education both as a process and as a discipline while trying to provide exact definitions of its nature and how it differs from other phenomena. It further studies the purpose of education and its types as well as how to conceptualize teachers, students, and their relation.[184] It includes educational ethics, which examines various moral issues in relation to education, for example, what ethical principles underlie it and how teachers should apply them to specific cases. The philosophy of education has a long history and was already discussed in ancient Greek philosophy.[185][186][187]

The term "pedagogy" is sometimes used as a synonym for education studies but when understood in a more restricted sense, it refers to the subfield interested in teaching methods.[188] It studies how the aims of education, like the transmission of knowledge or fostering skills and character traits, can be realized.[189][190][191] It is interested in the methods and practices used for teaching in regular schools and some researchers restrict it to this domain. But in a wider sense, it covers all types of education, including forms of teaching outside schools.[192] In this general sense, it explores how teachers can bring about experiences in learners to advance their understanding of the studied topic and how the learning itself takes place.[189][190]

The psychology of education studies how education happens on the mental level, specifically how new knowledge and skills are acquired as well as how personal growth takes place. It studies the factors responsible for successful education and how these factors may differ from person to person. Important factors include intelligence, motivation, and personality. A central topic in this field is the interplay between nature and nurture and how it affects educational success. Influential psychological theories of education are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.[193][194][195] Closely related fields are the neurology of education and educational neuroscience, which are interested in the neuropsychological processes and changes brought about through learning.[196]

The sociology of education is concerned with how social factors influence education and how it leads to socialization. Social factors differ from mental factors studied by psychology and include aspects like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender. The sociology of education studies how these factors, together with the dominant ideology in society, affect what kind of education is available to a person and how successful they are. Closely related questions include how education affects different groups in society and how educational experiences can form someone's personal identity. The sociology of education is interested in aspects that result in inequalities and is relevant to education policy, for example, when trying to identify what causes inequality and how to reduce it.[197][198] Two influential schools of thought are consensus theory and conflict theory. Consensus theorists hold that education benefits society as a whole by preparing people for their roles. Conflict theories have a more negative outlook on the resulting inequalities and see education as a force used by the ruling class to promote their own agenda.[199][200]

The economics of education is the field of inquiry studying how education is produced, distributed, and consumed. It tries to determine how resources should be used to improve education. An example is the question to what extent the quality of teachers is increased by raising their salary. Other questions are how smaller class sizes affect educational success and how to invest in new educational technologies. In this regard, it helps policy-makers decide how to distribute the limited resources most efficiently to benefit society as a whole. It also tries to understand what long-term role education plays for the economy of a country by providing a highly skilled labor force and increasing its competitiveness. A closely related issue concerns the economic advantages and disadvantages of different systems of education.[201][202][203]

 
Comparative education makes use of tools like education indices to compare systems of education in different countries.

Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts systems of education. Comparisons can happen from a general perspective or focus on specific factors, like social, political, or economic aspects. It is often applied to different countries to assess the similarities and differences of their educational institutions and practices as well as to evaluate the consequences of the distinct approaches. It can be used to learn from other countries which education policies work and how one's own system of education may be improved.[204][205][206] This practice is known as policy borrowing. It comes with many difficulties since the success of policies can depend to a large degree on the social and cultural context of students and teachers. A closely related and controversial topic concerns the question of whether the educational systems of developed countries are superior and should be exported to less developed countries.[207][208][209] Other key topics are the internationalization of education and the role of education in transmitting from an authoritarian regime to a democracy.[208][210]

The history of education examines the evolution of educational practices, systems, and institutions. It discusses various key processes, their possible causes and effects, and their relations to each other.[211]

Aims and ideologies

A central topic in education studies concerns questions like why people should be educated and what goals should guide this process. Many aims of education have been suggested. On a basic level, education is about the acquisition of knowledge and skills but may also include personal development and fostering of character traits. Common suggestions encompass features like curiosity, creativity, rationality, and critical thinking as well as the tendency to think, feel, and act morally. Some scholars focus on liberal values linked to freedom, autonomy, and open-mindedness. But others prioritize qualities like obedience to authority, ideological purity, piety, and religious faith. An important discussion in this regard is about the role of critical thinking. It asks to what extent indoctrination forms part of education. On a social level, it is often stressed that education should socialize people. This way, it turns them into productive members of society while promoting good citizenship and preserving cultural values.[212] A controversial issue in this regard concerns who primarily benefits from education: the educated person, society as a whole, or dominant groups within society.[213][214][215]

Educational ideologies are systems of basic philosophical assumptions and principles. They cover various additional issues besides the aims of education, like what topics are learned and how the learning activity is structured. Other topics include the role of the teacher and how the results are to be assessed. They also include claims on how to structure the institutional framework and policies. There are many ideologies and they often overlap in various ways. For example, teacher-centered ideologies place the main emphasis on the teacher's role in transmitting knowledge to students. Student-centered ideologies give a more active role to the students in the process. Product-based ideologies discuss education from the perspective of the result to be achieved. They contrast with process-based ideologies, which focus on the processes of teaching and learning themselves. Another classification contrasts progressivism with more traditional and conservative ideologies. Further categories are humanism, romanticism, essentialism, encyclopaedism, and pragmatism. There are also distinct types for authoritarian and democratic ideologies.[216][217][218]

Learning theories and teaching

Learning theories try to explain how learning happens. Influential theories are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism understands learning as a change in behavior in response to environmental stimuli. This happens by presenting the learner with a stimulus, associating this stimulus with the desired response, and solidifying this stimulus-response pair. Cognitivism sees learning as a change in cognitive structures and focuses on the mental processes involved in storing, retrieving, and processing information. According to constructivism, learning is based on the personal experience of each individual. It puts more emphasis on social interactions and how they are interpreted by the learner. These theories have important implications for how to teach. For example, behaviorists tend to focus on drills while cognitivists may advocate the use of mnemonics and constructivists tend to employ collaborative learning strategies.[219]

An influential developmental theory of learning is due to Jean Piaget. He outlines four stages of learning through which children pass on their way to adulthood. They are the sensorimotor, the pre-operational, the concrete operational, and the formal operational stage. They correspond to different levels of abstraction. Early stages focus more on simple sensory and motor activities. Later stages include more complex internal representations and information processing in the form of logical reasoning.[220][131] Various theories suggest that learning is more efficient when it is based on personal experience. An additional factor is to aim at a deeper understanding by connecting new to pre-existing knowledge rather than merely memorizing a list of unrelated facts.[221][222]

The teaching method concerns the way the content is presented by the teacher, for example, whether group work is used instead of a focus on individual learning. There are many teaching methods available. Which one is most efficient in a case depends on various factors, like the subject matter as well as the learner's age and competence level.[223][189][190] This is reflected in the fact that modern school systems organize students by age, competence, specialization, and native language into different classes to ensure a productive learning process. Different subjects frequently use very different approaches. For example, language education often focuses on verbal learning. Mathematical education, on the other hand, is about abstract and symbolic thinking together with deductive reasoning.[189][190] One central requirement for teaching methodologies is to ensure that the learner remains motivated, for example, because of interest and curiosity or through external rewards.[189][224]

Further aspects of teaching methods include the instructional media used, such as books, worksheets, and audio-visual recordings, and having some form of test or assessment to evaluate the learning progress. An important pedagogical aspect in many forms of modern education is that each lesson is part of a larger educational enterprise governed by a syllabus. It often covers several months or years.[189][225] According to Herbartianism, teaching is divided into phases. The initial phase consists of preparing the student's mind for new information. Next, new ideas are first presented to the learner and then associated with ideas with which the learner is already familiar. In later phases, the understanding shifts to a more general level behind the specific instances and the ideas are then put into concrete practice.[226][227]

History

The history of education studies the processes, methods, and institutions involved in teaching and learning. It tries to explain how they have interacted with each other and shaped educational practice until the present day.[228][229] Education began in prehistory, as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. For the most part, there were no specialized teachers and most adults taught the youth, usually informally during everyday activities. Education was achieved through oral communication and imitation. It could take the form of storytelling and singing to pass knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next.[230][231]

The earliest ancient civilizations developed in the period from 3000 to 1500 BCE in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and North China. Ancient education was characterized by the invention of writing and the development of formal education.[232][233] The invention of writing had a significant influence on the history of education as a whole. Through writing, it was possible to store and preserve information and make it accessible to more people. This enabled various subsequent developments, for example, the creation of educational tools, like textbooks, and institutions, like schools.[234]

 
Plato's Academy is often seen as the first school of higher learning. (Mosaic from Pompeii).

Another key aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education. This became necessary since the amount of knowledge grew as civilizations evolved and informal education proved insufficient to transmit all knowledge from one generation to the next. Teachers would act as specialists to impart knowledge and education became more abstract and further removed from daily life. Formal education was still quite rare in ancient societies and was restricted to the intellectual elites. It happened in the form of training scribes and priests and covered various subjects besides reading and writing, including the humanities, science, medicine, mathematics, law, and astrology.[232][155] Plato's Academy in Ancient Greece is often mentioned as one of the noteworthy achievements of ancient education. It is frequently described as the first institute of higher education.[235][236][237] Another achievement is the creation of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt. Many see it as the most prestigious library of the ancient world.[238]

In the medieval period, religious authorities had a lot of influence over formal education. This applied specifically to the role of the Catholic Church in Europe. But it is also seen in the Muslim world. Education there focused on the study of the Quran and its interpretations but also included knowledge of the sciences and the arts. Additionally, this period saw the establishment of universities as concentrated centers of higher education and research. The first universities were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and Oxford University.[239] Another key development was the creation of guilds. Guilds were associations of skilled craftsmen and merchants who controlled the practice of their trades. They were responsible for vocational education and new members had to pass through different stages on their way to masterhood.[240][241]

 
The invention of the printing press made written media widely available and led to a significant increase in general literacy.

The invention and popularization of the printing press in the middle of the 15th century by Johann Gutenberg had a profound impact on general education. It significantly reduced the cost of producing books, which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents, including new forms like newspapers and pamphlets. The increased availability of written media had a significant influence on the general literacy of the population.[242]

These changes prepared the rise of public education in the 18th and 19th centuries. This period saw the establishment of publicly funded schools with the aim of providing education for all. This contrasts with earlier periods, where formal education was primarily provided by private institutions, religious institutions, and individual tutors.[243] Aztec civilization was an exception in this regard since formal education was mandatory for the youth regardless of social class as early as the 14th century.[244][245][246] Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age.[247][248][249] Initiatives to promote public education and universal access to education made significant progress in the 20th and the 21st centuries and were promoted by intergovernmental organizations like the UN. Examples include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All initiative, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals.[250][251][252] These efforts resulted in a steady rise of all forms of education but affected primary education in particular. For example, in 1970, 28% of all primary-school-age children worldwide did not attend school while by 2015, this number dropped to 9%.[45]

A side effect of the establishment of public education was the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the students' progress. It also affected teachers by setting in place institutions and norms to guide and oversee teacher training, for example, by establishing certification standards for teaching at public schools.[253][254][255]

A further influence on contemporary education was the emergence of new educational technologies. For example, the widespread availability of computers and the internet dramatically increased access to educational resources and made new types of education possible, such as online education. This was of particular relevance during the COVID-19 pandemic. Schools all around the world had to close for extended periods. Many offered remote learning through video conferencing or pre-recorded video lessons to continue instruction.[256] A further contemporary factor is the increased globalization and internationalization of education.[257][258]

See also

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education, western, education, redirects, here, other, uses, western, education, disambiguation, education, disambiguation, transmission, knowledge, skills, character, traits, there, many, debates, about, precise, definition, example, about, which, aims, tries. Western education redirects here For other uses see Western education disambiguation and education disambiguation Education is the transmission of knowledge skills and character traits There are many debates about its precise definition for example about which aims it tries to achieve A further issue is whether part of the meaning of education is that the change in the student is an improvement Some researchers stress the role of critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination These disagreements affect how to identify measure and improve forms of education The term can also refer to the mental states and qualities of educated people Additionally it can mean the academic field studying education Left to right from top Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering Czech Technical University in Prague Czech Republic School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai near Gardez Paktia Province Afghanistan Student participants in the FIRST Robotics Competition Washington D C Early childhood education through USAID in Ziway Ethiopia There are many types of education Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework like public schools Non formal education is also structured but happens outside the formal schooling system Informal education is unstructured learning through daily experiences Formal and non formal education are divided into levels They include early childhood education primary education secondary education and tertiary education Other classifications focus on the teaching method like teacher centered and student centered education Forms of education can also be distinguished by subject like science education language education and physical education Education socializes children into society by teaching cultural values and norms It equips them with the skills needed to become productive members of society This way it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems Organized institutions affect many aspects of education For example governments set education policies They determine when school classes happen what is taught and who can or must attend International organizations like UNESCO have been influential in promoting primary education for all children Many factors influence whether education is successful Psychological factors include motivation intelligence and personality Social factors like socioeconomic status ethnicity and gender are often linked to discrimination Further factors include educational technology teacher quality and parent involvement The main field investigating education is called education studies It examines what education is and what aims it has It also studies how it happens what effects it has and how to improve it It has many subfields like philosophy of education psychology of education sociology of education economics of education and comparative education It also discusses the history of education In pre history education happened informally through oral communication and imitation With the rise of ancient civilizations writing was invented and the amount of knowledge grew This caused a shift from informal to formal education Initially formal education was mainly available to elites and religious groups The invention of the printing press in the 15th century made books more widely available This increased general literacy Beginning in the 18th and 19th centuries public education became more important It led to the worldwide process of making primary education available to all free of charge and compulsory up to a certain age Contents 1 Definitions 2 Types 2 1 Formal non formal and informal 2 2 Levels 2 3 Others 3 Role in society 4 Role of institutions 5 Factors of educational success 5 1 Psychological 5 2 Sociological 5 3 Technology and others 6 Education studies 6 1 Subfields 6 2 Aims and ideologies 6 3 Learning theories and teaching 7 History 8 See also 9 References 9 1 Citations 9 2 Sources 10 External linksDefinitionsMain article Definitions of education Theorists from various fields have tried to define education 1 2 3 Many agree that education is a purposeful activity trying to achieve certain aims These aims include the transmission of knowledge skills and character traits 4 1 5 However there are deep disagreements about its exact nature besides these general features According to some theorists it is primarily a process that occurs during events like schooling teaching and learning 6 7 2 Others understand it not as a process but as the product caused by this process This means that education is what educated persons have It includes the mental states and dispositions that are characteristic of them 6 7 2 The term may also refer to an academic field This discipline studies the methods and processes taking place during teaching and learning It examines the social institutions involved in these processes 7 The term education is derived from the Latin term educare It means bring up rear educate primarily in relation to the mind It is also connected to the Latin term educere It means bring out lead forth and refers to the bodily level 8 Some theorists provide precise definitions by giving the exact features that are shared by all forms of education and only by them According to R S Peters for example education has three essential features 1 It is concerned with the transmission of knowledge and understanding 2 This transmission is worthwhile 3 It is done in a morally appropriate manner in tune with the student s interests 9 10 1 Such precise definitions often succeed at characterizing the most typical forms of education But they are criticized because there are counterexamples 10 11 2 These difficulties have led some theorists to develop less precise concepts Some of them are based on family resemblance This means that all the forms of education are similar to each other But they need not share a set of essential features that all of them have in common 1 12 13 Some theorists claim that the term education is context dependent This implies that its meaning varies depending on the situation in which it is used 2 Having a clear idea of what the term means is important to correctly identify forms of education It also matters when trying to measure or improve them 14 15 16 There is disagreement in the academic literature on whether education is an evaluative concept This means that being good in some sense is part of the definition of education So called thick definitions affirm this They may claim for example that an improvement of the learner is a requirement of education Different thick definitions may still disagree among themselves on what kind of improvement is needed Thin definitions on the other hand try to give a value neutral account of education 15 17 A closely related distinction is that between descriptive and prescriptive conceptions Descriptive conceptions aim to describe how the term is actually used by regular speakers Prescriptive conceptions try to express what good education is or how it should be done 4 18 Many thick and prescriptive conceptions rely on the aims of education to explain their view This means that they see education as an activity that tries to achieve certain aims 19 20 21 These aims can be classified into different categories There is one category for epistemic goods like knowledge and understanding Another category covers skills like rationality and critical thinking Additionally there are character traits like kindness and honesty 15 Some theorists focus on a single overarching purpose of education and see the more specific aims as means to this end 22 20 For example they may claim that socialization is the aim of education This means that education is seen as the process of transmitting accumulated knowledge from one generation to the next This process helps the student to function in society as a regular citizen 4 23 2 More person centered definitions focus on the well being of the student instead For them education is a process that helps them lead a good life or the life they wish to lead 4 22 2 Various scholars stress critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination 20 21 24 For them mere indoctrination is only interested in instilling beliefs in the student independent of whether they are rational 20 19 Education on the other hand should also foster the rational ability to critically reflect on those beliefs and question them 25 But some theorists contend that some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education It may be needed until the child s mind is sufficiently developed 20 Education can be characterized from the teacher s or the student s perspective Teacher centered definitions focus on the perspective and role of the teacher They may claim for example that education is the transmission of knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate way 26 2 9 Student centered definitions on the other hand see education from the student s experience in the learning process For example they may define it as a process that transforms and enriches their subsequent experience 27 10 28 Definitions taking both perspectives into account are also possible This can take the form of describing the process as the shared experience of a common world This shared experience involves discovery as well as posing and solving problems 10 26 29 TypesThere are many classifications of education It depends on the institutional framework whether education is formal non formal or informal Levels of education are distinguished based on factors like the student s age and the complexity of the content Some classifications focus on the learner or the topic Others rely on the teaching method the medium used or the funding 30 Formal non formal and informal Tutoring is an example of non formal education while learning how to cook from ones parents belongs to informal education Education is often divided into types The most common division is between formal non formal and informal education 31 However some theorists only distinguish between formal and informal education 32 Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework Such frameworks have a chronological and hierarchical order For instance the modern schooling system has classes based on the student s age and progress all the way from primary school to university Formal education is usually controlled and guided by the government It is normally compulsory up to a certain age 33 34 Non formal and informal education take place outside the formal schooling system Non formal education is a middle ground Like formal education it is organized systematic and carried out with a clear purpose in mind Examples are tutoring fitness classes and the scouting movement 35 Informal education on the other hand happens in an unsystematic way through daily experiences and exposure to the environment Unlike formal and non formal education there is usually no designated authority figure responsible for teaching 36 Informal education is present in many settings It happens throughout one s life mostly in a spontaneous way This is how children learn their mother tongue from their parents or how people learn to prepare a dish by cooking together 33 34 2 Some theorists distinguish the three types based on the location of learning Formal education takes place in school Informal education occurs in places of everyday routines Non formal education happens in places that are occasionally visited 36 There are also differences in the source of motivation Formal education is mainly driven by extrinsic motivation for external rewards Non formal and informal education are closely linked to intrinsic motivation because the learning itself is enjoyed 36 The distinction between the three types is normally clear for the typical cases But some forms of education do not easily fall into one category 33 36 Formal education plays a central role in modern civilization But in primitive cultures most of the education happened on the informal level 23 37 38 This usually means that there is no distinction between activities focused on education and other activities Instead the whole environment acts as a form of school and most adults act as teachers However informal education is often not efficient enough to pass on large quantities of knowledge To do so a formal setting and well trained teachers are usually required This was one of the reasons why in the course of history formal education became more and more important In this process the experience of education became more abstract and removed from daily life More emphasis was put on grasping general patterns instead of observing and imitating behavior 23 37 Levels Types of education are often divided into levels or stages The most influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education It is maintained by the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO It covers both formal and non formal education It distinguishes levels based on the student s age the duration of learning and the complexity of the discussed content Further criteria include entry requirements teacher qualifications and the intended outcome of successful completion The levels are grouped together into early childhood education level 0 primary education level 1 secondary education levels 2 3 post secondary non tertiary education level 4 and tertiary education levels 5 8 39 40 41 Young children in a kindergarten in Japan Early childhood education is also known as preschool education or nursery education It is the stage of education that begins with birth and lasts until the start of primary school It follows the holistic aim of fostering early child development at the physical mental and social levels It plays a key role in socialization and personality development It includes various basic skills in the areas of communication learning and problem solving This way it prepares children for their entry into primary education 42 Primary or elementary education usually starts at the age of five to seven and lasts for four to seven years It does not have any further entry requirements Its main goal is to teach the basic skills in the fields of reading writing and mathematics But it also covers the core knowledge in other fields like history geography the sciences music and art A further aim is to foster personal development 43 39 44 Today primary education is compulsory in almost all countries Over 90 of all primary school age children worldwide attend primary school 45 Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education It usually covers the ages of 12 to 18 years It is commonly divided into lower secondary education middle school or junior high school and upper secondary education high school senior high school or college depending on the country Lower secondary education normally has the completion of primary school as its entry requirement It aims to extend and deepen the learning outcomes It is more strongly focused on subject specific curricula and teachers are specialized in only one or a few specific subjects One of its aims is to familiarize students with the basic theoretical concepts in these fields This helps create a solid basis for lifelong learning In some cases it also includes vocational training 39 46 47 In many countries it is the last stage of compulsory education 48 49 A high school senior twelfth grade classroom in Calhan Colorado United States Upper secondary education aims to provide students with the skills and knowledge needed for employment or tertiary education Its requirement is usually the completion of lower secondary education Its subjects are more varied and complex The students can often choose between a few subjects Its successful completion is commonly tied to a formal qualification in the form of a high school diploma 39 50 51 There are some types of education after secondary education that do not belong to tertiary education They are often similar in complexity to secondary education But they tend to focus more on vocational training to prepare students for the job market 52 53 Students in a laboratory Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University Tertiary education is also referred to as higher education It expands upon the foundations of secondary education but has a more narrow and in depth focus on a specific field or subject Its completion leads to an academic degree It can be divided into four levels short cycle tertiary Bachelor s Master s and doctoral level education They often form a hierarchical structure with later levels depending on the completion of previous levels 54 39 55 Short cycle tertiary education focuses on practical matters It includes advanced vocational and professional training to prepare students for the job market in specialized professions 56 39 57 Bachelor s level education is also referred to as undergraduate education It tends to be longer than short cycle tertiary education It is usually offered by universities and results in an intermediary academic certification in the form of a Bachelor s degree 58 39 59 Master s level education is more specialized than undergraduate education Many programs require independent research in the form of a Master s thesis as a requirement for successful completion 60 39 61 Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification normally in the form of a doctor s degree It usually requires the submission of a substantial academic work such as a dissertation 62 39 63 Others Many other types of education are discussed in the academic literature like the distinction between traditional and alternative education Traditional education concerns long established and mainstream schooling practices It uses teacher centered education and takes place in a well regulated school environment Regulations cover many aspects of education such as the curriculum and the timeframe when classes start and end 64 65 Homeschooling is one form of alternative education Alternative education is an umbrella term for forms of schooling that differ from the mainstream traditional approach For example they may use a different learning environment teach different subjects or promote a different teacher student relationship Alternative schooling is characterized by voluntary participation relatively small class and school sizes and personalized instruction This often results in a more welcoming and emotionally safe atmosphere It encompasses many types like charter schools and special programs for problematic or gifted children It also includes homeschooling and unschooling For instance Montessori schools Waldorf schools and Round Square schools are alternative schools Further examples are Escuela Nueva schools free schools and democratic schools 66 Alternative education also includes indigenous education It focuses on the transmission of knowledge and skills from an indigenous heritage Its method gives more emphasis to narration and storytelling 67 68 69 Other distinctions are based on who receives education Categories by the age of the learner are childhood education adolescent education adult education and elderly education 70 71 72 Special education is education that is specifically adapted to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities It covers various forms of impairments on the intellectual social communicative and physical levels It aims to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments This way it provides the affected students with access to an appropriate education When understood in the broadest sense it also includes education for very gifted children who need adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential 73 74 75 Some classifications focus on the teaching method In teacher centered education for example the teacher takes center stage in providing students with information It contrasts with student centered education in which students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities 76 For conscious education learning and teaching happen with a clear purpose in mind Unconscious education on the other hand occurs on its own without being consciously planned or guided 77 This may happen in part through the personality of teachers and adults Their personality can have indirect effects on the development of the student s personality 78 Autodidacticism or self education is self directed learning It happens without the guidance of teachers and institutions It mainly occurs in adult education It is characterized by the freedom to choose what and when to study For this reason it can be a more fulfilling learning experience However the lack of structure and guidance can result in aimless learning Due to the absence of external feedback autodidacts may develop false ideas and inaccurately assess their learning progress 79 It is closely related to lifelong education which is an ongoing learning process throughout a person s entire life 80 81 Forms of education can also be categorized by the subject and the medium used Types based on the subject include science education language education art education religious education and physical education 82 83 84 Special mediums are usually used in distance education Examples include e learning use of computers m learning use of mobile devices and online education They often take the form of open education where the courses and materials are made available with a minimal amount of barriers They contrast with regular classroom or onsite education 85 A further distinction is based on the type of funding Public education is also referred to as state education It is education funded and controlled by the government It is available to the general public It normally does not require tuition fees and is thus a form of free education It contrasts with private education which is funded and managed by private institutions Private schools often have a more selective admission process Many offer paid education by charging tuition fees 86 A more detailed classification focuses on the social institution responsible for education It includes categories for institutions like family school civil society state and church 87 88 Compulsory education is education that people are legally required to receive It concerns mainly children who need to visit school up to a certain age It contrasts with voluntary education which people pursue by personal choice without a legal requirement 89 90 91 Evidence based education uses well designed scientific studies to determine which methods of education work best Its goal is to maximize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies This is achieved by ensuring that they are informed by the best available empirical evidence It includes evidence based teaching evidence based learning and school effectiveness research 92 93 94 Role in societyEducation plays various roles in society including in social economic and personal fields On a social level education makes it possible to establish and sustain a stable society It helps people acquire the basic skills needed to interact with their environment and fulfill their needs and desires In modern society this involves a wide range of skills like being able to speak read and write as well as to solve problems and to perform basic arithmetic tasks It also includes the ability to handle information and communications technology Children are socialized into society by acquiring these skills Another key part of socialization is to learn how to live in social groups and interact with others by coming to understand social and cultural norms and expectations This requires an understanding of what kinds of behavior are considered appropriate in different contexts This way new members are introduced to the culture norms and values that are dominant in their society Socialization happens throughout life but is of special relevance to early childhood education It enables a form of social cohesion stability and peace needed for people to productively engage in their daily business Education plays a key role in democracies by increasing civic participation in the form of voting and organizing and through its tendency to promote equal opportunity for all 95 A further issue is to enable people to become productive members of society by learning how to contribute to it Through education individuals acquire the technical and analytical skills needed to pursue their profession produce goods and provide services to others In early societies there was little specialization and each child would generally learn most of the tasks relevant to help their group Modern societies are increasingly complex and many professions are only mastered by relatively few people who receive specialized training in addition to general education Some of the skills and tendencies learned to function in society may conflict with each other and their value depends on the context of their usage For example fostering a questioning mind is necessary to develop the ability of critical thinking but in some cases obedience to an authority is required to ensure social stability 96 97 98 By helping people become productive members of society education can stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty It helps workers become more skilled and thereby increases the quality of the produced goods and services which in turn leads to prosperity and increased competitiveness 99 In this regard public education is often understood as a long term investment to benefit society as a whole The rate of return is especially high for investments in primary education 100 97 Besides increasing economic prosperity it can also lead to technological and scientific advances as well as decrease unemployment while promoting social equity 101 Education can prepare a country to adapt to changes and successfully face new challenges For example it can help raise awareness and contribute to the solution of contemporary global problems Examples are climate change and sustainability as well as the widening inequalities between the rich and the poor 102 103 104 By making students aware of how their lives and actions affect others it may inspire some to work toward realizing a more sustainable and fair world 105 This way education serves not just the purpose of reproducing society as it is but can also be an instrument of development by realizing social transformation to improve society 106 This applies also to changing circumstances in the economic sector For example due to technological advances and increased automation many jobs may be lost in the coming decades 107 This may render currently taught skills and knowledge redundant while shifting the importance to other areas Education can be used to prepare people for such changes by adjusting the curriculum This way subjects involving digital literacy and skills in handling new technologies can be promoted 108 109 110 Another example is online education in the form of massive open online courses 111 On a more individual level education promotes personal development This can include factors such as learning new skills developing talents fostering creativity and increasing self knowledge as well as improving problem solving and decision making abilities 112 113 It further has positive effects on health and well being 114 While education is of high relevance in childhood it does not end with adulthood and continues throughout life This phenomenon is known as lifelong learning It is of specific significance in contemporary society due to the rapid changes on many levels and the need for people to adjust to them 115 116 117 The social importance of education is recognized in the annual International Day of Education on January 24 The year 1970 was declared International Education Year 118 119 Role of institutions Beijing Normal University which is governed directly by the Chinese Ministry of Education is an example of collaboration between different entities in the education sector Organized institutions play a key role for various aspects of education Institutions like schools universities teacher training institutions and ministries of education make up the education sector They interact both with each other and with other stakeholders such as parents local communities and religious groups Further stakeholders are NGOs professionals in healthcare law enforcement media platforms and political leaders Many people are directly involved in the education sector They include students teachers and school principals as well as school nurses and curriculum developers 120 121 Many aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions They determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held as well as issues pertaining to the school environment like infrastructure Regulations also cover the exact requirements for teachers and how they are trained An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools colleges and universities A curriculum is a planned sequence of instructions or a program of learning that intends to guide the experience of learners to achieve the aims of education The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school For example the goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a comprehensive and well rounded education while vocational trainings focus more on specific practical skills within a field The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed such as the teaching method the objectives to be reached and the standards for assessing progress By determining the curricula governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to the students 122 International organizations also play a key role in education For example UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education in many ways One of its activities is to advocate education policies One example is the treaty UNCRC It states that education is a human right of all children and young people Another is the Education for All initiative It aimed to offer basic education to all children adolescents and adults by the year 2015 It was later replaced by the initiative Sustainable Development Goals as goal 4 123 Related policies include the Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative 124 125 Some influential organizations are not intergovernmental but non governmental For example the International Association of Universities promotes the exchange of colleges and universities around the world The International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs 126 127 128 Many institutions like the Erasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries 129 Factors of educational successMany factors influence educational achievement They include psychological factors which concern the student as an individual and sociological factors which pertain to the student s social environment Further factors include access to educational technology teacher quality and parent involvement Many of these factors overlap and influence each other 130 Psychological On a psychological level relevant factors include motivation intelligence and personality 131 Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning 132 133 134 Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions which often results in a deeper understanding of the subject It can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks An important distinction is between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards They may strive for good grades and recognition by their peers It is often claimed that intrinsic motivation is more beneficial by leading to increased creativity and engagement as well as long term commitment 135 Educational psychologists try to discover how to increase motivation This can be achieved by encouraging some competition among students Another factor is to balance positive and negative feedback in the form of praise and criticism 132 136 Intelligence is another important factor in how people respond to education It is a mental quality linked to the ability to learn from experience to understand and to employ knowledge and skills to solve problems Those who have higher scores in intelligence metrics tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education 137 Intelligence is often primarily associated with the so called IQ a standardized numerical metric for assessing intelligence However it has been argued that there different types of intelligences pertaining to distinct areas According to Howard Gardner some affect the areas of mathematics logic and spatial cognition Others concern language and music There are also distinct types for interacting with other people and with oneself These forms are largely independent of each other This means that someone may excel at one type while scoring low on another 138 139 A closely related factor concerns learning styles A learning style is a preferred form of acquiring knowledge and skills For example students with an auditory learning style find it easy to follow spoken lectures and discussions while visual learners benefit if information is presented visually in diagrams and videos For efficient learning it is often beneficial to include a wide variety of learning modalities 140 141 142 The learner s personality may also affect educational achievement For example the features of conscientiousness and openness to experience from the Big Five personality traits are linked to academic success 143 Further mental factors include self efficacy self esteem and metacognitive abilities 131 144 Sociological Unlike psychological factors sociological factors focus not on the mental attributes of learners but on their social status and environment They include socioeconomic status ethnicity and cultural background as well as gender They are of interest to researchers since they are associated with inequality and discrimination For this reason they play a key role in policy making in attempts to mitigate their effects 145 Socioeconomic status depends on income but includes other factors as well such as financial security social status and social class as well as quality of life attributes Low socioeconomic status affects educational success in various ways It is linked to slower cognitive developments in language and memory and higher dropout rates Poor families may not have enough money to invest in educational resources like stimulating toys books and computers Additionally they may be unable to afford tuition at prestigious schools and are more likely to attend schools in poorer areas Such schools tend to offer lower standards of teaching for example because of teacher shortages or because they lack educational materials and facilities like libraries Poor parents may also be unable to afford private lessons if their children lack behind Students from a low socioeconomic status often have less access to information on higher education and may face additional difficulties in securing and repaying student loans Low socioeconomic status also has many indirect negative effects because it is linked to lower physical and mental health Due to these factors social inequalities on the level of the parents are often reproduced in the children 146 147 148 Ethnic background is linked to cultural differences and language barriers which make it more difficult for students to adapt to the school environment and follow classes Additional factors are explicit and implicit biases and discrimination toward ethnic minorities This may affect the students self esteem and motivation as well as their access to educational opportunities For example teachers may hold stereotypical views even if they are not overtly racist which can lead them to grade comparable performances differently based on the child s ethnicity 149 Historically gender has been a central factor in education since the roles of males and females were defined differently in many societies Education tended to strongly favor males who were expected to provide for the family Females on the other hand were expected to manage the household and rear children which severely hampered the educational opportunities available to them And while these inequalities have improved in most modern societies there are still gender differences in education Among other things this concerns biases and stereotypes linked to the role of gender in education An example is that subjects like science technology engineering and mathematics are often presented as male fields This discourages female students to follow them 150 151 152 One aspect of many social factors is given by the expectations associated with stereotypes On the one hand they work on an external level based on how people react to a person belonging to a certain group On the other hand they also affect the internal level because the person internalizes them and acts accordingly In this sense the expectations may turn into self fulfilling prophecies by causing the educational outcomes they anticipate This can happen both for positive and for negative stereotypes 153 154 Technology and others Technology plays another significant role in educational success Educational technology is commonly associated with the use of modern digital devices like computers But understood in the broadest sense it involves a wide range of resources and tools for learning including basic aids that do not involve the use of machines like regular books and worksheets 155 156 The OLPC laptop being introduced to children in Haiti Educational technology can benefit learning in various ways In the form of media it often takes the role of the primary supplier of information in the classroom This means that the teacher can focus their time and energy on other tasks like planning the lesson and guiding students as well as assessing educational performance 155 It can also make information easier to understand for example by presenting it using graphics and videos rather than through mere text In this regard interactive elements may be used to make the learning experience more engaging for example in the form of educational games Technology can be employed to make educational materials accessible to many people like when using online resources It additionally facilitates collaboration between students and communication with teachers 157 158 159 Lack of educational technology is an issue specifically in various developing countries and many efforts are made to address it like the One Laptop per Child initiative 160 161 162 A closely related issue concerns the effects of school infrastructure It includes various physical aspects of the school like its location and size as well as the available school facilities and equipment For example a healthy and safe environment well maintained classrooms and suitable classroom furniture as well as the availability of a library and a canteen tend to contribute to educational success 163 164 The quality of the teacher also has an important impact on educational success For example skilled teachers are able to motivate and inspire students and are able to adjust their instructions to the students abilities and needs Important in this regard are the teacher s own education and training as well as their past teaching experience 165 A meta analysis by Engin Karadag et al concludes that compared to other influences factors related to the school and the teacher have the biggest impact on student achievement 166 An additional factor to boost educational achievement is parent involvement It can make children more motivated and invested if they are aware that their parents care about their educational efforts This tends to lead to increased self esteem better attendance rates and more constructive behavior at school Parent involvement also includes communication with teachers and other school staff for example to make other parties aware of current issues and how they may be resolved 167 168 169 Further relevant factors sometimes discussed in the academic literature include historical political demographic religious and legal aspects 170 171 Education studiesMain article Education sciences John Locke s book Some Thoughts Concerning Education from 1693 is one of the foundational works of education studies 172 The main discipline investigating education is called education studies also referred to as education sciences It tries to determine how people transmit and acquire knowledge by studying the methods and forms of education It is interested in its aims effects and value as well as the cultural societal governmental and historical contexts that shape education 173 Education theorists integrate insights from many other fields of inquiry including philosophy psychology sociology economics history politics and international relations Because of these influences some theorists claim that education studies is not an independent academic discipline like physics or history since its method and subject are not as clearly defined 174 175 Education studies differs from regular training programs such as teacher training since its focus on academic analysis and critical reflection goes beyond the skills needed to be a good teacher It is not restricted to the topic of formal education but examines all forms and aspects of education 176 177 178 Various research methods are used to study educational phenomena They can roughly be divided into quantitative qualitative and mixed methods approaches Quantitative research emulates the methods found in the natural sciences by using precise numerical measurements to gather data from many observations and employs statistical tools to analyze it It aims to arrive at an objective and impersonal understanding Qualitative research usually has a much smaller sample size and tries to get an in depth insight into more subjective and personal factors like how different actors experience the process of education Mixed methods research aims to combine data gathered from both approaches to arrive at a balanced and comprehensive understanding Data can be gathered in various ways like using direct observation or test scores as well as interviews and questionnaires 179 180 Research can be employed to study basic factors affecting all forms of education examine specific applications look for solutions to concrete problems and evaluate the effectiveness of projects 181 Subfields Education studies encompasses various subfields like philosophy of education pedagogy psychology of education sociology of education economics of education comparative education and history of education 182 183 The philosophy of education is the branch of applied philosophy that examines many of the basic assumptions underlying the theory and practice of education It studies education both as a process and as a discipline while trying to provide exact definitions of its nature and how it differs from other phenomena It further studies the purpose of education and its types as well as how to conceptualize teachers students and their relation 184 It includes educational ethics which examines various moral issues in relation to education for example what ethical principles underlie it and how teachers should apply them to specific cases The philosophy of education has a long history and was already discussed in ancient Greek philosophy 185 186 187 The term pedagogy is sometimes used as a synonym for education studies but when understood in a more restricted sense it refers to the subfield interested in teaching methods 188 It studies how the aims of education like the transmission of knowledge or fostering skills and character traits can be realized 189 190 191 It is interested in the methods and practices used for teaching in regular schools and some researchers restrict it to this domain But in a wider sense it covers all types of education including forms of teaching outside schools 192 In this general sense it explores how teachers can bring about experiences in learners to advance their understanding of the studied topic and how the learning itself takes place 189 190 The psychology of education studies how education happens on the mental level specifically how new knowledge and skills are acquired as well as how personal growth takes place It studies the factors responsible for successful education and how these factors may differ from person to person Important factors include intelligence motivation and personality A central topic in this field is the interplay between nature and nurture and how it affects educational success Influential psychological theories of education are behaviorism cognitivism and constructivism 193 194 195 Closely related fields are the neurology of education and educational neuroscience which are interested in the neuropsychological processes and changes brought about through learning 196 The sociology of education is concerned with how social factors influence education and how it leads to socialization Social factors differ from mental factors studied by psychology and include aspects like socioeconomic status ethnicity and gender The sociology of education studies how these factors together with the dominant ideology in society affect what kind of education is available to a person and how successful they are Closely related questions include how education affects different groups in society and how educational experiences can form someone s personal identity The sociology of education is interested in aspects that result in inequalities and is relevant to education policy for example when trying to identify what causes inequality and how to reduce it 197 198 Two influential schools of thought are consensus theory and conflict theory Consensus theorists hold that education benefits society as a whole by preparing people for their roles Conflict theories have a more negative outlook on the resulting inequalities and see education as a force used by the ruling class to promote their own agenda 199 200 The economics of education is the field of inquiry studying how education is produced distributed and consumed It tries to determine how resources should be used to improve education An example is the question to what extent the quality of teachers is increased by raising their salary Other questions are how smaller class sizes affect educational success and how to invest in new educational technologies In this regard it helps policy makers decide how to distribute the limited resources most efficiently to benefit society as a whole It also tries to understand what long term role education plays for the economy of a country by providing a highly skilled labor force and increasing its competitiveness A closely related issue concerns the economic advantages and disadvantages of different systems of education 201 202 203 Comparative education makes use of tools like education indices to compare systems of education in different countries Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts systems of education Comparisons can happen from a general perspective or focus on specific factors like social political or economic aspects It is often applied to different countries to assess the similarities and differences of their educational institutions and practices as well as to evaluate the consequences of the distinct approaches It can be used to learn from other countries which education policies work and how one s own system of education may be improved 204 205 206 This practice is known as policy borrowing It comes with many difficulties since the success of policies can depend to a large degree on the social and cultural context of students and teachers A closely related and controversial topic concerns the question of whether the educational systems of developed countries are superior and should be exported to less developed countries 207 208 209 Other key topics are the internationalization of education and the role of education in transmitting from an authoritarian regime to a democracy 208 210 The history of education examines the evolution of educational practices systems and institutions It discusses various key processes their possible causes and effects and their relations to each other 211 Aims and ideologies A central topic in education studies concerns questions like why people should be educated and what goals should guide this process Many aims of education have been suggested On a basic level education is about the acquisition of knowledge and skills but may also include personal development and fostering of character traits Common suggestions encompass features like curiosity creativity rationality and critical thinking as well as the tendency to think feel and act morally Some scholars focus on liberal values linked to freedom autonomy and open mindedness But others prioritize qualities like obedience to authority ideological purity piety and religious faith An important discussion in this regard is about the role of critical thinking It asks to what extent indoctrination forms part of education On a social level it is often stressed that education should socialize people This way it turns them into productive members of society while promoting good citizenship and preserving cultural values 212 A controversial issue in this regard concerns who primarily benefits from education the educated person society as a whole or dominant groups within society 213 214 215 Educational ideologies are systems of basic philosophical assumptions and principles They cover various additional issues besides the aims of education like what topics are learned and how the learning activity is structured Other topics include the role of the teacher and how the results are to be assessed They also include claims on how to structure the institutional framework and policies There are many ideologies and they often overlap in various ways For example teacher centered ideologies place the main emphasis on the teacher s role in transmitting knowledge to students Student centered ideologies give a more active role to the students in the process Product based ideologies discuss education from the perspective of the result to be achieved They contrast with process based ideologies which focus on the processes of teaching and learning themselves Another classification contrasts progressivism with more traditional and conservative ideologies Further categories are humanism romanticism essentialism encyclopaedism and pragmatism There are also distinct types for authoritarian and democratic ideologies 216 217 218 Learning theories and teaching Learning theories try to explain how learning happens Influential theories are behaviorism cognitivism and constructivism Behaviorism understands learning as a change in behavior in response to environmental stimuli This happens by presenting the learner with a stimulus associating this stimulus with the desired response and solidifying this stimulus response pair Cognitivism sees learning as a change in cognitive structures and focuses on the mental processes involved in storing retrieving and processing information According to constructivism learning is based on the personal experience of each individual It puts more emphasis on social interactions and how they are interpreted by the learner These theories have important implications for how to teach For example behaviorists tend to focus on drills while cognitivists may advocate the use of mnemonics and constructivists tend to employ collaborative learning strategies 219 An influential developmental theory of learning is due to Jean Piaget He outlines four stages of learning through which children pass on their way to adulthood They are the sensorimotor the pre operational the concrete operational and the formal operational stage They correspond to different levels of abstraction Early stages focus more on simple sensory and motor activities Later stages include more complex internal representations and information processing in the form of logical reasoning 220 131 Various theories suggest that learning is more efficient when it is based on personal experience An additional factor is to aim at a deeper understanding by connecting new to pre existing knowledge rather than merely memorizing a list of unrelated facts 221 222 The teaching method concerns the way the content is presented by the teacher for example whether group work is used instead of a focus on individual learning There are many teaching methods available Which one is most efficient in a case depends on various factors like the subject matter as well as the learner s age and competence level 223 189 190 This is reflected in the fact that modern school systems organize students by age competence specialization and native language into different classes to ensure a productive learning process Different subjects frequently use very different approaches For example language education often focuses on verbal learning Mathematical education on the other hand is about abstract and symbolic thinking together with deductive reasoning 189 190 One central requirement for teaching methodologies is to ensure that the learner remains motivated for example because of interest and curiosity or through external rewards 189 224 Further aspects of teaching methods include the instructional media used such as books worksheets and audio visual recordings and having some form of test or assessment to evaluate the learning progress An important pedagogical aspect in many forms of modern education is that each lesson is part of a larger educational enterprise governed by a syllabus It often covers several months or years 189 225 According to Herbartianism teaching is divided into phases The initial phase consists of preparing the student s mind for new information Next new ideas are first presented to the learner and then associated with ideas with which the learner is already familiar In later phases the understanding shifts to a more general level behind the specific instances and the ideas are then put into concrete practice 226 227 HistoryMain article History of education The history of education studies the processes methods and institutions involved in teaching and learning It tries to explain how they have interacted with each other and shaped educational practice until the present day 228 229 Education began in prehistory as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society For the most part there were no specialized teachers and most adults taught the youth usually informally during everyday activities Education was achieved through oral communication and imitation It could take the form of storytelling and singing to pass knowledge values and skills from one generation to the next 230 231 The earliest ancient civilizations developed in the period from 3000 to 1500 BCE in Egypt Mesopotamia and North China Ancient education was characterized by the invention of writing and the development of formal education 232 233 The invention of writing had a significant influence on the history of education as a whole Through writing it was possible to store and preserve information and make it accessible to more people This enabled various subsequent developments for example the creation of educational tools like textbooks and institutions like schools 234 Plato s Academy is often seen as the first school of higher learning Mosaic from Pompeii Another key aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education This became necessary since the amount of knowledge grew as civilizations evolved and informal education proved insufficient to transmit all knowledge from one generation to the next Teachers would act as specialists to impart knowledge and education became more abstract and further removed from daily life Formal education was still quite rare in ancient societies and was restricted to the intellectual elites It happened in the form of training scribes and priests and covered various subjects besides reading and writing including the humanities science medicine mathematics law and astrology 232 155 Plato s Academy in Ancient Greece is often mentioned as one of the noteworthy achievements of ancient education It is frequently described as the first institute of higher education 235 236 237 Another achievement is the creation of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt Many see it as the most prestigious library of the ancient world 238 In the medieval period religious authorities had a lot of influence over formal education This applied specifically to the role of the Catholic Church in Europe But it is also seen in the Muslim world Education there focused on the study of the Quran and its interpretations but also included knowledge of the sciences and the arts Additionally this period saw the establishment of universities as concentrated centers of higher education and research The first universities were the University of Bologna the University of Paris and Oxford University 239 Another key development was the creation of guilds Guilds were associations of skilled craftsmen and merchants who controlled the practice of their trades They were responsible for vocational education and new members had to pass through different stages on their way to masterhood 240 241 The invention of the printing press made written media widely available and led to a significant increase in general literacy The invention and popularization of the printing press in the middle of the 15th century by Johann Gutenberg had a profound impact on general education It significantly reduced the cost of producing books which were hand written before and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents including new forms like newspapers and pamphlets The increased availability of written media had a significant influence on the general literacy of the population 242 These changes prepared the rise of public education in the 18th and 19th centuries This period saw the establishment of publicly funded schools with the aim of providing education for all This contrasts with earlier periods where formal education was primarily provided by private institutions religious institutions and individual tutors 243 Aztec civilization was an exception in this regard since formal education was mandatory for the youth regardless of social class as early as the 14th century 244 245 246 Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age 247 248 249 Initiatives to promote public education and universal access to education made significant progress in the 20th and the 21st centuries and were promoted by intergovernmental organizations like the UN Examples include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights the Convention on the Rights of the Child the Education for All initiative the Millennium Development Goals and the Sustainable Development Goals 250 251 252 These efforts resulted in a steady rise of all forms of education but affected primary education in particular For example in 1970 28 of all primary school age children worldwide did not attend school while by 2015 this number dropped to 9 45 A side effect of the establishment of public education was the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the students progress It also affected teachers by setting in place institutions and norms to guide and oversee teacher training for example by establishing certification standards for teaching at public schools 253 254 255 A further influence on contemporary education was the emergence of new educational technologies For example the widespread availability of computers and the internet dramatically increased access to educational resources and made new types of education possible such as online education This was of particular relevance during the COVID 19 pandemic Schools all around the world had to close for extended periods Many offered remote learning through video conferencing or pre recorded video lessons to continue instruction 256 A further contemporary factor is the increased globalization and internationalization of education 257 258 See alsoBildung German tradition of self cultivation Co teaching teaching approach involving two educatorsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Educational institution Institution that provides education Glossary of education terms Index of education articles List of education articles by country Mixed sex education System of education where males and females are educated together Outline of education Overview of and topical guide to education School Institution for the education of students by teachersReferencesCitations a b c d Marshall 2006 p 33 37 a b c d e f g h i Curtis et al 2013 1 What is education Matheson 2014 p 15 32 What is education a b c d Chazan 2022 p 13 21 What Is Education UNESCO 2018 a b Peters 1967 What is an Educational Process a b c HarperCollins staff 2023 Etymology Online staff a b Peters 2015 1 Criteria of Education a b c d Beckett 2011 p 239 255 Peters Woods amp Dray 1973 Aims of Education A Conceptual Inquiry Biletzki amp Matar 2021 Sluga 2006 p 1 21 Wilson 2003 p 101 108 a b c Watson 2016 p 146 159 Biesta 2015 p 75 87 Kotzee 2011 p 549 564 Smith 2020 p 781 783 a b Siegel 2023 a b c d e Siegel Phillips amp Callan 2018 a b Siegel 2010 p 3 9 Introduction Philosophy of Education and Philosophy a b Haack 1981 p 289 302 a b c Bowen Gelpi amp Anweiler 2023 introduction Curren 1996 Education philosophy of Davies amp Barnett 2015 p 1 25 Introduction a b Beckett 2018 p 380 389 Dewey 2004 6 Education as Conservative and Progressive Jackson 2011 1 Dewey s parting words Freire 1970 Chapter 2 La Belle 1982 pp 159 175UNESCO 2012 pp 6 25 73 75Emaliana 2017 pp 59 70Cobb amp Glass 2021 p 11 La Belle 1982 pp 159 175Eshach 2007 pp 171 190Curtis et al 2013 1 What is education Singh 2015 pp 1 16 Introduction Strauss 1984 p 195 222 a b c La Belle 1982 p 159 175 a b Tudor 2013 p 821 826 La Belle 1982 pp 159 175Tudor 2013 pp 821 826Curtis et al 2013 1 What is education Pazmino 2002 pp 62 63 a b c d Eshach 2007 p 171 190 a b Scribner amp Cole 1973 p 553 559 Mead 1943 p 633 639 a b c d e f g h i OECD 2018 p 80 85 Salganik Matheson amp Phelps 1997 UNESCO 2012 pp 6 11 12 25 New amp Cochran 2007 p 1046OECD 2018 pp 80 85Salganik Matheson amp Phelps 1997UNESCO 2012 pp 26 29 UNESCO 2012 pp 30 32 OECD 2015 pp 29 32 a b Roser amp Ortiz Ospina 2013 OECD 2015 pp 39 43 UNESCO 2012 pp 33 37 Claire et al 2011 p 137 Close 2014 p 76 OECD 2015 pp 47 52 UNESCO 2012 pp 38 42 OECD 2015 pp 59 63 UNESCO 2012 pp 43 45 OECD 2015 pp 69 71 UNESCO 2012 pp 46 47 OECD 2015 pp 73 76 UNESCO 2012 pp 48 50 OECD 2015 pp 81 84 UNESCO 2012 pp 51 54 OECD 2015 pp 89 92 UNESCO 2012 pp 55 58 OECD 2015 pp 97 100 UNESCO 2012 pp 59 61 Neufeld 2015 p 85 93 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2023 Neufeld 2015 pp 85 93Guthrie 2003b pp 82 86The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2023Aron 2006 pp 3 4Sliwka 2008 pp 93 96 The Contribution of Alternative Education Jacob Cheng amp Porter 2015 p 3 Iseke 2013 p 559 577 Reyhner amp Singh Bullard amp Hitz 1997 p 15 22 DeVitis amp Irwin DeVitis 2010 Preface Lee 2021 p 714 723 Mazurek amp Winzer 1994 p xvii Tomlinson 2012 p 73 HarperCollins staff 2023a Emaliana 2017 p 59 70 Jackson 2011a 6 In Pursuit of Perfection Main 2012 p 82 95 Jarvis 2012 p 44Morgan Trofimova amp Kliucharev 2018 pp 75 76Tiem Moseley amp Dessinger 2012 pp 261 262Chou amp Zou 2020 pp 1 3 Giuseffi 2019 Resources 2021 p 567 568 UNESCO 2012 pp 73 75 Berry 2016 p 459 482 Li 2006 p 6 Adarkwah 2021 p 258Curtis et al 2013 1 What is education Bowen Gelpi amp Anweiler 2023 Global trends in educationZawacki Richter 2020 Hill Pierce amp Guthrie 2009 p 30OUP staffCobb amp Glass 2021 p 11Collins staffSmith amp Meier 2016 p 70 Rosenkranz amp Brackett 1872 p 95 Harris 1881 p 215 227 Ali Coleman amp Fields Smith 2022 National Education League 1875 p 52 Humphreys amp Quinn 2013 p 27 Wagner Deindl amp Schmolzer 2023 p 99 Brown amp Williams 2005 p 3 4 27 Cook Tankersley amp Landrum 2013 p 9 10 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 14 15 20 212 216Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 37 38Glaeser Ponzetto amp Shleifer 2007 pp 77 78Kantzara 2016 pp 1 3 Education Social Functions of Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 15 16 a b Johnes Portela amp Thanassoulis 2017 p 331 312 Paechter 2001 p 9 10 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 6 8 212 216Dufour amp Will 2011 pp 88 89Krueger amp Lindahl 2001 pp 1101 1136 Dufour amp Will 2011 pp 85 89 Chimombo 2005 p 129 152 Ward 2004 pp 19 22 36 37 UNESCO 2022 p iii 7 16 Reimers 2020 p ix Ward 2004 pp 41 42 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 20 Srinivasan 2019The economist data team 2018Manyika et al Vincent 2017 Jong Wha 2018 Krishnan Staats Waks 2019 p 183 213 Anderson et al 2020 p 2141 2167 Burman et al 2005 p 42 43 Raghupathi amp Raghupathi 2020 p 20 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 89 91 Warren 2009 pp 8 9 147 149 Illanes et al UN 2023 UN 2023a UNESCO 2016 p 54 Gary amp Crime 2017 p 7 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 74 77 81 85Bailey 2014 pp 48 49Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 p 7 UNESCO 2021 pp 8 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2004 p 247 248 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 17Becares amp Priest 2015 p e0141363Hart 2019 pp 582 583Warren 2009 pp 4 5 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 146 149 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 p 123 APA staff Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 p 122Archer amp Francis 2006Isik et al 2018 pp 1 2Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 166 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 157 161 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 p 119 Sullivan 2019 p 3 7 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 126 127 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 p 116 a b c Sampath 1981 p 30 32 Technology 1973 p 120 122 Guthrie 2003a Technology in Education Spector 2015 p 664 Haleem et al 2022 p 275 276 Selwyn 2013 p 128 Robertson 2018 Rodriguez Segura 2022 p 171 173 Figueroa Lim amp Lee 2016 p 273 276 Barrett et al 2019 p 1 2 Ryan 2018 p 114Moore 2004 p 52Winters 2012 pp 16 18Burroughs et al 2019 pp 7 17 A Review of the Literature on Teacher Effectiveness and Student Outcomes Karadag 2017 pp 325 330 Karadag 2017 p 271 272 Schmid amp Garrels 2021 p 456 458 Shute et al 2011 p 1 3 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