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Wikipedia

Cyberspace

Cyberspace is a concept describing a widespread interconnected digital technology. "The expression dates back from the first decade of the diffusion of the internet. It refers to the online world as a world 'apart', as distinct from everyday reality.[1] In cyberspace people can hide behind fake identities, as in the famous The New Yorker cartoon." (Delfanti, Arvidsson, 150) The term entered popular culture from science fiction and the arts but is now used by technology strategists, security professionals, governments, military and industry leaders and entrepreneurs to describe the domain of the global technology environment, commonly defined as standing for the global network of interdependent information technology infrastructures, telecommunications networks and computer processing systems. Others consider cyberspace to be just a notional environment in which communication over computer networks occurs.[2] The word became popular in the 1990s when the use of the Internet, networking, and digital communication were all growing dramatically; the term cyberspace was able to represent the many new ideas and phenomena that were emerging.[3][4]

As a social experience, individuals can interact, exchange ideas, share information, provide social support, conduct business, direct actions, create artistic media, play games, engage in political discussion, and so on, using this global network. They are sometimes referred to as cybernauts. The term cyberspace has become a conventional means to describe anything associated with the Internet and the diverse Internet culture. The United States government recognizes the interconnected information technology and the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures operating across this medium as part of the US national critical infrastructure. Amongst individuals on cyberspace, there is believed to be a code of shared rules and ethics mutually beneficial for all to follow, referred to as cyberethics. Many view the right to privacy as most important to a functional code of cyberethics.[5] Such moral responsibilities go hand in hand when working online with global networks, specifically, when opinions are involved with online social experiences.[6][7]

According to Chip Morningstar and F. Randall Farmer, cyberspace is defined more by the social interactions involved rather than its technical implementation.[8] In their view, the computational medium in cyberspace is an augmentation of the communication channel between real people; the core characteristic of cyberspace is that it offers an environment that consists of many participants with the ability to affect and influence each other. They derive this concept from the observation that people seek richness, complexity, and depth within a virtual world.

Origins of the term

The term "cyberspace" first appeared in the visual arts in the late 1960s, when Danish artist Susanne Ussing (1940-1998) and her partner architect Carsten Hoff (b. 1934) constituted themselves as Atelier Cyberspace. Under this name the two made a series of installations and images entitled "sensory spaces" that were based on the principle of open systems adaptable to various influences, such as human movement and the behaviour of new materials.[9]

Atelier Cyberspace worked at a time when the Internet did not exist and computers were more or less off-limit to artists and creative engagement. In a 2015-interview with Scandinavian art magazine Kunstkritikk, Carsten Hoff recollects, that although Atelier Cyberspace did try to implement computers, they had no interest in the virtual space as such:[9]

To us, "cyberspace" was simply about managing spaces. There was nothing esoteric about it. Nothing digital, either. It was just a tool. The space was concrete, physical.

And in the same interview Hoff continues:

Our shared point of departure was that we were working with physical settings, and we were both frustrated and displeased with the architecture from the period, particularly when it came to spaces for living. We felt that there was a need to loosen up the rigid confines of urban planning, giving back the gift of creativity to individual human beings and allowing them to shape and design their houses or dwellings themselves – instead of having some clever architect pop up, telling you how you should live. We were thinking in terms of open-ended systems where things could grow and evolve as required. For instance, we imagined a kind of mobile production unit, but unfortunately the drawings have been lost. It was a kind of truck with a nozzle at the back. Like a bee building its hive. The nozzle would emit and apply material that grew to form amorphous mushrooms or whatever you might imagine. It was supposed to be computer-controlled, allowing you to create interesting shapes and sequences of spaces. It was a merging of organic and technological systems, a new way of structuring the world. And a response that counteracted industrial uniformity. We had this idea that sophisticated software might enable us to mimic the way in which nature creates products – where things that belong to the same family can take different forms. All oak trees are oak trees, but no two oak trees are exactly alike. And then a whole new material – polystyrene foam – arrived on the scene. It behaved like nature in the sense that it grew when its two component parts were mixed. Almost like a fungal growth. This made it an obvious choice for our work in Atelier Cyberspace.

The works of Atelier Cyberspace were originally shown at a number of Copenhagen venues and have later been exhibited at The National Gallery of Denmark in Copenhagen as part of the exhibition "What's Happening?"[10]

The term "cyberspace" first appeared in fiction in the 1980s in the work of cyberpunk science fiction author William Gibson, first in his 1982 short story "Burning Chrome" and later in his 1984 novel Neuromancer.[11] In the next few years, the word became prominently identified with online computer networks. The portion of Neuromancer cited in this respect is usually the following:[12]

Cyberspace. A consensual hallucination experienced daily by billions of legitimate operators, in every nation, by children being taught mathematical concepts... A graphic representation of data abstracted from the banks of every computer in the human system. Unthinkable complexity. Lines of light ranged in the nonspace of the mind, clusters and constellations of data. Like city lights, receding.

Now widely used, the term has since been criticized by Gibson, who commented on the origin of the term in the 2000 documentary No Maps for These Territories:

All I knew about the word "cyberspace" when I coined it, was that it seemed like an effective buzzword. It seemed evocative and essentially meaningless. It was suggestive of something, but had no real semantic meaning, even for me, as I saw it emerge on the page.

Metaphorical

Don Slater uses a metaphor to define cyberspace, describing the "sense of a social setting that exists purely within a space of representation and communication ... it exists entirely within a computer space, distributed across increasingly complex and fluid networks." The term "Cyberspace" started to become a de facto synonym for the Internet, and later the World Wide Web, during the 1990s, especially in academic circles[13] and activist communities. Author Bruce Sterling, who popularized this meaning,[14] credits John Perry Barlow as the first to use it to refer to "the present-day nexus of computer and telecommunications networks". Barlow describes it thus in his essay to announce the formation of the Electronic Frontier Foundation (note the spatial metaphor) in June 1990:[15]

In this silent world, all conversation is typed. To enter it, one forsakes both body and place and becomes a thing of words alone. You can see what your neighbors are saying (or recently said), but not what either they or their physical surroundings look like. Town meetings are continuous and discussions rage on everything from sexual kinks to depreciation schedules. Whether by one telephonic tendril or millions, they are all connected to one another. Collectively, they form what their inhabitants call the Net. It extends across that immense region of electron states, microwaves, magnetic fields, light pulses and thought which sci-fi writer William Gibson named Cyberspace.

— John Perry Barlow, "Crime and Puzzlement", 1990-06-08

As Barlow, and the EFF continued public education efforts to promote the idea of "digital rights", the term was increasingly used during the Internet boom of the late 1990s.

Virtual environments

Although the present-day, loose use of the term "cyberspace" no longer implies or suggests immersion in a virtual reality, current technology allows the integration of a number of capabilities (sensors, signals, connections, transmissions, processors, and controllers) sufficient to generate a virtual interactive experience that is accessible regardless of a geographic location. It is for these reasons cyberspace has been described as the ultimate tax haven.[16]

In 1989, Autodesk, an American multinational corporation that focuses on 2D and 3D design software, developed a virtual design system called Cyberspace.[17]

Recent definitions of Cyberspace

Although several definitions of cyberspace can be found both in scientific literature and in official governmental sources, there is no fully agreed official definition yet. According to F. D. Kramer there are 28 different definitions of the term cyberspace. See in particular the following links: "Cyberpower and National Security: Policy Recommendations for a Strategic Framework," in Cyberpower and National Security, FD Kramer, S. Starr, L.K. Wentz (ed.), National Defense University Press, Washington (DC) 2009; see also Mayer, M., Chiarugi, I., De Scalzi, N., https://www.academia.edu/14336129/International_Politics_in_the_Digital_Age.

The most recent draft definition is the following:

Cyberspace is a global and dynamic domain (subject to constant change) characterized by the combined use of electrons and the electromagnetic spectrum, whose purpose is to create, store, modify, exchange, share, and extract, use, eliminate information and disrupt physical resources. Cyberspace includes: a) physical infrastructures and telecommunications devices that allow for the connection of technological and communication system networks, understood in the broadest sense (SCADA devices, smartphones/tablets, computers, servers, etc.); b) computer systems (see point a) and the related (sometimes embedded) software that guarantee the domain's basic operational functioning and connectivity; c) networks between computer systems; d) networks of networks that connect computer systems (the distinction between networks and networks of networks is mainly organizational); e) the access nodes of users and intermediaries routing nodes; f) constituent data (or resident data). Often, in common parlance (and sometimes in commercial language), networks of networks are called the Internet (with a lowercase i), while networks between computers are called intranet. Internet (with a capital I, in journalistic language sometimes called the Net) can be considered a part of the system a). A distinctive and constitutive feature of cyberspace is that no central entity exercises control over all the networks that make up this new domain.[18] Just as in the real world there is no world government, cyberspace lacks an institutionally predefined hierarchical center. To cyberspace, a domain without a hierarchical ordering principle, we can, therefore, extend the definition of international politics coined by Kenneth Waltz: as being "with no system of law enforceable." This does not mean that the dimension of power in cyberspace is absent, nor that power is dispersed and scattered into a thousand invisible streams, nor that it is evenly spread across myriad people and organizations, as some scholars had predicted. On the contrary, cyberspace is characterized by a precise structuring of hierarchies of power.[19]

The Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States Department of Defense define cyberspace as one of five interdependent domains, the remaining four being land, air, maritime, and space.[20] See United States Cyber Command

Cyberspace as an Internet metaphor

While cyberspace should not be confused with the Internet, the term is often used to refer to objects and identities that exist largely within the communication network itself, so that a website, for example, might be metaphorically said to "exist in cyberspace".[21] According to this interpretation, events taking place on the Internet are not happening in the locations where participants or servers are physically located, but "in cyberspace". The philosopher Michel Foucault used the term heterotopias, to describe such spaces which are simultaneously physical and mental.

Firstly, cyberspace describes the flow of digital data through the network of interconnected computers: it is at once not "real", since one could not spatially locate it as a tangible object, and clearly "real" in its effects. There have been several attempts to create a concise model about how cyberspace works since it is not a physical thing that can be looked at.[22] Secondly, cyberspace is the site of computer-mediated communication (CMC), in which online relationships and alternative forms of online identity were enacted, raising important questions about the social psychology of Internet use, the relationship between "online" and "offline" forms of life and interaction, and the relationship between the "real" and the virtual. Cyberspace draws attention to remediation of culture through new media technologies: it is not just a communication tool but a social destination and is culturally significant in its own right. Finally, cyberspace can be seen as providing new opportunities to reshape society and culture through "hidden" identities, or it can be seen as borderless communication and culture.[23]

Cyberspace is the "place" where a telephone conversation appears to occur. Not inside your actual phone, the plastic device on your desk. Not inside the other person's phone, in some other city. The place between the phones. [...] in the past twenty years, this electrical "space," which was once thin and dark and one-dimensional—little more than a narrow speaking-tube, stretching from phone to phone—has flung itself open like a gigantic jack-in-the-box. Light has flooded upon it, the eerie light of the glowing computer screen. This dark electric netherworld has become a vast flowering electronic landscape. Since the 1960s, the world of the telephone has cross-bred itself with computers and television, and though there is still no substance to cyberspace, nothing you can handle, it has a strange kind of physicality now. It makes good sense today to talk of cyberspace as a place all its own.

— Bruce Sterling, Introduction to The Hacker Crackdown

The "space" in cyberspace has more in common with the abstract, mathematical meanings of the term (see space) than physical space. It does not have the duality of positive and negative volume (while in physical space, for example, a room has the negative volume of usable space delineated by positive volume of walls, Internet users cannot enter the screen and explore the unknown part of the Internet as an extension of the space they are in), but spatial meaning can be attributed to the relationship between different pages (of books as well as web servers), considering the unturned pages to be somewhere "out there." The concept of cyberspace, therefore, refers not to the content being presented to the surfer, but rather to the possibility of surfing among different sites, with feedback loops between the user and the rest of the system creating the potential to always encounter something unknown or unexpected.

Video games differ from text-based communication in that on-screen images are meant to be figures that actually occupy a space and the animation shows the movement of those figures. Images are supposed to form the positive volume that delineates the empty space. A game adopts the cyberspace metaphor by engaging more players in the game, and then figuratively representing them on the screen as avatars. Games do not have to stop at the avatar-player level, but current implementations aiming for more immersive playing space (i.e. Laser tag) take the form of augmented reality rather than cyberspace, fully immersive virtual realities remaining impractical.

Although the more radical consequences of the global communication network predicted by some cyberspace proponents (i.e. the diminishing of state influence envisioned by John Perry Barlow[24]) failed to materialize and the word lost some of its novelty appeal, it remains current as of 2006.[6][25]

Some virtual communities explicitly refer to the concept of cyberspace, for example Linden Lab calling their customers "Residents" of Second Life, while all such communities can be positioned "in cyberspace" for explanatory and comparative purposes (as did Sterling in The Hacker Crackdown, followed by many journalists), integrating the metaphor into a wider cyber-culture.

The metaphor has been useful in helping a new generation of thought leaders to reason through new military strategies around the world, led largely by the US Department of Defense (DoD).[26] The use of cyberspace as a metaphor has had its limits, however, especially in areas where the metaphor becomes confused with physical infrastructure. It has also been critiqued as being unhelpful for falsely employing a spatial metaphor to describe what is inherently a network.[21]

Alternate realities in philosophy and art

Predating computers

A forerunner of the modern ideas of cyberspace is the Cartesian notion that people might be deceived by an evil demon that feeds them a false reality. This argument is the direct predecessor of modern ideas of a brain in a vat and many popular conceptions of cyberspace take Descartes's ideas as their starting point.

Visual arts have a tradition, stretching back to antiquity, of artifacts meant to fool the eye and be mistaken for reality. This questioning of reality occasionally led some philosophers and especially theologians[27] to distrust art as deceiving people into entering a world which was not real (see Aniconism). The artistic challenge was resurrected with increasing ambition as art became more and more realistic with the invention of photography, film (see Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat), and immersive computer simulations.

Influenced by computers

Philosophy

American counterculture exponents like William S. Burroughs (whose literary influence on Gibson and cyberpunk in general is widely acknowledged[28][29]) and Timothy Leary[30] were among the first to extol the potential of computers and computer networks for individual empowerment.[31]

Some contemporary philosophers and scientists (e.g. David Deutsch in The Fabric of Reality) employ virtual reality in various thought experiments. For example, Philip Zhai in Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality connects cyberspace to the Platonic tradition:

Let us imagine a nation in which everyone is hooked up to a network of VR infrastructure. They have been so hooked up since they left their mother's wombs. Immersed in cyberspace and maintaining their life by teleoperation, they have never imagined that life could be any different from that. The first person that thinks of the possibility of an alternative world like ours would be ridiculed by the majority of these citizens, just like the few enlightened ones in Plato's allegory of the cave.

Note that this brain-in-a-vat argument conflates cyberspace with reality, while the more common descriptions of cyberspace contrast it with the "real world".

Cyber-Geography

The “Geography of Notopia” (Papadimitriou, 2006) theorizes about the complex interplay of cyber-cultures and the geographical space. This interplay has several philosophical and psychological facets (Papadimitriou, 2009).

A New Communication Model

The technological convergence of the mass media is the result of a long adaptation process of their communicative resources to the evolutionary changes of each historical moment. Thus, the new media became (plurally) an extension of the traditional media in cyberspace, allowing to the public access information in a wide range of digital devices.[32] In other words, it is a cultural virtualization of human reality as a result of the migration from physical to virtual space (mediated by the ICTs), ruled by codes, signs and particular social relationships. Forwards, arise instant ways of communication, interaction and possible quick access to information, in which we are no longer mere senders, but also producers, reproducers, co-workers and providers. New technologies also help to "connect" people from different cultures outside the virtual space, which was unthinkable fifty years ago. In this giant relationships web, we mutually absorb each other's beliefs, customs, values, laws and habits, cultural legacies perpetuated by a physical-virtual dynamics in constant metamorphosis (ibidem). In this sense, Professor Doctor Marcelo Mendonça Teixeira created, in 2013, a new model of communication to the virtual universe,[33] based in Claude Elwood Shannon (1948) article "A Mathematical Theory of Communication".

Art

Having originated among writers, the concept of cyberspace remains most popular in literature and film. Although artists working with other media have expressed interest in the concept, such as Roy Ascott, "cyberspace" in digital art is mostly used as a synonym for immersive virtual reality and remains more discussed than enacted.[34]

Computer crime

Cyberspace also brings together every service and facility imaginable to expedite money laundering. One can purchase anonymous credit cards, bank accounts, encrypted global mobile telephones, and false passports. From there one can pay professional advisors to set up IBCs (International Business Corporations, or corporations with anonymous ownership) or similar structures in OFCs (Offshore Financial Centers). Such advisors are loath to ask any penetrating questions about the wealth and activities of their clients, since the average fees criminals pay them to launder their money can be as much as 20 percent.[35]

5-level model

In 2010, a five-level model was designed in France. According to this model, cyberspace is composed of five layers based on information discoveries: 1) language, 2) writing, 3) printing, 4) Internet, 5) Etc., i.e. the rest, e.g. noosphere, artificial life, artificial intelligence, etc., etc. This original model links the world of information to telecommunication technologies.

See also

Further reading

  • Branch, J. (2020). "What's in a Name? Metaphors and Cybersecurity." International Organization.

References

  1. ^ Govind., Warrier, Vinu. "The globe is now officially open for business!" : the advertising of cyberspace : globalization and the politics of cyberculture. OCLC 1108665848.
  2. ^ . Archived from the original on February 18, 2013.
  3. ^ Strate, Lance (1999). "The varieties of cyberspace: Problems in definition and delimitation". Western Journal of Communication. 63 (3): 382–83. doi:10.1080/10570319909374648.
  4. ^ Steiger, Stefan; Harnisch, Sebastian; Zettl, Kerstin; Lohmann, Johannes (2018-01-02). "Conceptualising conflicts in cyberspace". Journal of Cyber Policy. 3 (1): 77–95. doi:10.1080/23738871.2018.1453526. ISSN 2373-8871.
  5. ^ Richard A. Spinello, "Cyberethics: Morality and Law in Cyberspace"
  6. ^ a b White House, "The National Strategy To Secure Cyberspace"
  7. ^ United States. President (2001-2009: Bush). (2003). The national strategy to secure cyberspace. White House. (link to the pdf)
  8. ^ Morningstar, Chip and F. Randall Farmer. The Lessons of Lucasfilm's Habitat. The New Media Reader. Ed. Wardrip-Fruin and Nick Montfort: The MIT Press, 2003. 664-667. Print
  9. ^ a b . Archived from the original on 2015-08-26. Retrieved 2015-08-24.
  10. ^ . Archived from the original on 2016-07-17. Retrieved 2015-08-24.
  11. ^ Scott Thil (March 17, 2009). "March 17, 1948: William Gibson, Father of Cyberspace". WIRED.
  12. ^ Gibson, William (1984). Neuromancer. New York: Ace Books. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-441-56956-4.
  13. ^ Vanderbilt University, "Postmodernism and the Culture of Cyberspace" 2007-01-07 at the Wayback Machine, Fall 1996 course syllabus
  14. ^ Principia Cybernetica "Cyberspace"
  15. ^ John Perry Barlow, "Crime and Puzzlement," 2012-01-01 at the Wayback Machine June 8, 1990
  16. ^ William Rees-Mogg; James Dale Davidson (1997). The Sovereign Individual. Simon & Schuster. p. 8. ISBN 978-0684832722.
  17. ^ Andrew Pollack, New York Times, "For Artificial Reality, Wear A Computer," April 10, 1989
  18. ^ Definition by Marco Mayer, Luigi Martino, Pablo Mazurier and Gergana Tzvetkova, Draft Pisa, 19 May 2014 https://www.academia.edu/7096442/How_would_you_define_Cyberspace
  19. ^ The most recent analysis of the interaction of Cyberspace and International politics has been investigated in the MIT, Harvard and CFR ECIR project (Explorations in Cyber International Relations http://ecir.mit.edu/). ECIR Principal Investigator is Nazli Choucri
  20. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-01-27. Retrieved 2018-12-01.
  21. ^ a b Graham, Mark (2013). "Geography/internet: Ethereal alternate dimensions of cyberspace or grounded augmented realities?". The Geographical Journal. 179 (2): 177–182. doi:10.1111/geoj.12009.
  22. ^ Bryant, William (November–December 2013). "Cyberspace Superiority A Conceptual Model" (PDF). Air & Space Power Journal. 27: 25–44. (PDF) from the original on 2017-03-04. Retrieved 2018-10-29.
  23. ^ New Media, an Introduction: Flew, Terry
  24. ^ John Perry Barlow, "A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace", February 8, 1996
  25. ^ FindLaw Legal News site, Tech and IP: Cyberspace section, retrieved November 14, 2006.
  26. ^ Cyber Conflict Studies Association, CCSA
  27. ^ Ranging across history, from the interference of depictions of newly died in the Great Dreaming of Australian aboriginal ancestors; East Roman/Byzantine iconoclasm movements in the 8th and 8th c. CE; in Islam, Sunni and other exegetes from the 9th century onward; in Judaism, Joseph Karo's Shulkhan Arukh (Code of Jewish Law: Venice, 1563); and, in the Bahai faith, the concerns of Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith (1921-57).
  28. ^ Alexander Laurence, An Interview with John Shirley, 1994
  29. ^ "Burroughs/Gysin/Throbbing Gristle", retrieved December 31, 2006
  30. ^ "Internet will be the LSD of the 90s", quoted by an on-line biography 2006-12-09 at the Wayback Machine
  31. ^ Douglas Rushkoff, "Godfathers of Cyberspace"
  32. ^ Teixeira, Marcelo Mendonca; Ferreira, Tiago Alessandro Espinola (2014-01-28). The Communication Model of Virtual Universe. Munich: Grin Verlag. ISBN 9783656569916.
  33. ^ The Communication Model of Virtual Universe: Amazon.co.uk: Marcelo Mendonça Teixeira, Tiago Alessandro EspÃnola Ferreira: 9783656569916: Books. ASIN 3656569916.
  34. ^ Eduardo Kac, "Telepresence Art" Archived 2009-07-13 at the Portuguese Web Archive
  35. ^ Granville, Johanna (2003). "Dot.Con: The Dangers of Cyber Crime and a Call for Proactive Solutions". Australian Journal of Politics and History. 49: 102–109. doi:10.1111/1467-8497.00284.

Sources

  • Cyberculture, The key Concepts, edited by David Bell, Brian D.Loader, Nicholas Pleace and Douglas Schuler
  • Christine Buci-Glucksmann, "L’art à l’époque virtuel", in Frontières esthétiques de l’art, Arts 8, Paris: L’Harmattan, 2004
  • William Gibson. Neuromancer:20th Anniversary Edition. New York:Ace Books, 2004.
  • Oliver Grau: Virtual Art. From Illusion to Immersion, MIT-Press, Cambridge 2003. (4 Auflagen).
  • David Koepsell, The Ontology of Cyberspace, Chicago: Open Court, 2000.
  • Ippolito, Jon (December 1998 – January 1999). "Cross Talk: Is Cyberspace Really a Space?". Artbyte: 12–24.
  • Irvine, Martin. , retrieved 2006-07-19.
  • Slater, Don 2002, 'Social Relationships and Identity Online and Offline', in L.Lievrouw and S.Livingston (eds), The Handbook of New Media, Sage, London, pp533–46.
  • Graham, Mark (2011). "Time machines and virtual portals". Progress in Development Studies. 11 (3): 211–227. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.659.9379. doi:10.1177/146499341001100303. S2CID 17281619.
  • Sterling, Bruce. The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder On the Electronic Frontier. Spectra Books, 1992.
  • Zhai, Philip. Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998.
  • Teixeira, Marcelo Mendonça (2012). Cyberculture: From Plato To The Virtual Universe. The Architecture of Collective Intelligence. Munich: Grin Verlag.

External links

  • what is cyberspace

cyberspace, other, uses, disambiguation, animated, children, series, cyberchase, concept, describing, widespread, interconnected, digital, technology, expression, dates, back, from, first, decade, diffusion, internet, refers, online, world, world, apart, disti. For other uses see Cyberspace disambiguation For the animated children s TV series see Cyberchase Cyberspace is a concept describing a widespread interconnected digital technology The expression dates back from the first decade of the diffusion of the internet It refers to the online world as a world apart as distinct from everyday reality 1 In cyberspace people can hide behind fake identities as in the famous The New Yorker cartoon Delfanti Arvidsson 150 The term entered popular culture from science fiction and the arts but is now used by technology strategists security professionals governments military and industry leaders and entrepreneurs to describe the domain of the global technology environment commonly defined as standing for the global network of interdependent information technology infrastructures telecommunications networks and computer processing systems Others consider cyberspace to be just a notional environment in which communication over computer networks occurs 2 The word became popular in the 1990s when the use of the Internet networking and digital communication were all growing dramatically the term cyberspace was able to represent the many new ideas and phenomena that were emerging 3 4 As a social experience individuals can interact exchange ideas share information provide social support conduct business direct actions create artistic media play games engage in political discussion and so on using this global network They are sometimes referred to as cybernauts The term cyberspace has become a conventional means to describe anything associated with the Internet and the diverse Internet culture The United States government recognizes the interconnected information technology and the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures operating across this medium as part of the US national critical infrastructure Amongst individuals on cyberspace there is believed to be a code of shared rules and ethics mutually beneficial for all to follow referred to as cyberethics Many view the right to privacy as most important to a functional code of cyberethics 5 Such moral responsibilities go hand in hand when working online with global networks specifically when opinions are involved with online social experiences 6 7 According to Chip Morningstar and F Randall Farmer cyberspace is defined more by the social interactions involved rather than its technical implementation 8 In their view the computational medium in cyberspace is an augmentation of the communication channel between real people the core characteristic of cyberspace is that it offers an environment that consists of many participants with the ability to affect and influence each other They derive this concept from the observation that people seek richness complexity and depth within a virtual world Contents 1 Origins of the term 1 1 Metaphorical 1 2 Virtual environments 1 3 Recent definitions of Cyberspace 2 Cyberspace as an Internet metaphor 3 Alternate realities in philosophy and art 3 1 Predating computers 3 2 Influenced by computers 3 2 1 Philosophy 3 3 Cyber Geography 3 3 1 A New Communication Model 3 3 2 Art 3 3 3 Computer crime 3 3 4 5 level model 4 See also 5 Further reading 6 References 6 1 Sources 7 External linksOrigins of the term EditThe term cyberspace first appeared in the visual arts in the late 1960s when Danish artist Susanne Ussing 1940 1998 and her partner architect Carsten Hoff b 1934 constituted themselves as Atelier Cyberspace Under this name the two made a series of installations and images entitled sensory spaces that were based on the principle of open systems adaptable to various influences such as human movement and the behaviour of new materials 9 Atelier Cyberspace worked at a time when the Internet did not exist and computers were more or less off limit to artists and creative engagement In a 2015 interview with Scandinavian art magazine Kunstkritikk Carsten Hoff recollects that although Atelier Cyberspace did try to implement computers they had no interest in the virtual space as such 9 To us cyberspace was simply about managing spaces There was nothing esoteric about it Nothing digital either It was just a tool The space was concrete physical And in the same interview Hoff continues Our shared point of departure was that we were working with physical settings and we were both frustrated and displeased with the architecture from the period particularly when it came to spaces for living We felt that there was a need to loosen up the rigid confines of urban planning giving back the gift of creativity to individual human beings and allowing them to shape and design their houses or dwellings themselves instead of having some clever architect pop up telling you how you should live We were thinking in terms of open ended systems where things could grow and evolve as required For instance we imagined a kind of mobile production unit but unfortunately the drawings have been lost It was a kind of truck with a nozzle at the back Like a bee building its hive The nozzle would emit and apply material that grew to form amorphous mushrooms or whatever you might imagine It was supposed to be computer controlled allowing you to create interesting shapes and sequences of spaces It was a merging of organic and technological systems a new way of structuring the world And a response that counteracted industrial uniformity We had this idea that sophisticated software might enable us to mimic the way in which nature creates products where things that belong to the same family can take different forms All oak trees are oak trees but no two oak trees are exactly alike And then a whole new material polystyrene foam arrived on the scene It behaved like nature in the sense that it grew when its two component parts were mixed Almost like a fungal growth This made it an obvious choice for our work in Atelier Cyberspace The works of Atelier Cyberspace were originally shown at a number of Copenhagen venues and have later been exhibited at The National Gallery of Denmark in Copenhagen as part of the exhibition What s Happening 10 The term cyberspace first appeared in fiction in the 1980s in the work of cyberpunk science fiction author William Gibson first in his 1982 short story Burning Chrome and later in his 1984 novel Neuromancer 11 In the next few years the word became prominently identified with online computer networks The portion of Neuromancer cited in this respect is usually the following 12 Cyberspace A consensual hallucination experienced daily by billions of legitimate operators in every nation by children being taught mathematical concepts A graphic representation of data abstracted from the banks of every computer in the human system Unthinkable complexity Lines of light ranged in the nonspace of the mind clusters and constellations of data Like city lights receding Now widely used the term has since been criticized by Gibson who commented on the origin of the term in the 2000 documentary No Maps for These Territories All I knew about the word cyberspace when I coined it was that it seemed like an effective buzzword It seemed evocative and essentially meaningless It was suggestive of something but had no real semantic meaning even for me as I saw it emerge on the page Metaphorical Edit Don Slater uses a metaphor to define cyberspace describing the sense of a social setting that exists purely within a space of representation and communication it exists entirely within a computer space distributed across increasingly complex and fluid networks The term Cyberspace started to become a de facto synonym for the Internet and later the World Wide Web during the 1990s especially in academic circles 13 and activist communities Author Bruce Sterling who popularized this meaning 14 credits John Perry Barlow as the first to use it to refer to the present day nexus of computer and telecommunications networks Barlow describes it thus in his essay to announce the formation of the Electronic Frontier Foundation note the spatial metaphor in June 1990 15 In this silent world all conversation is typed To enter it one forsakes both body and place and becomes a thing of words alone You can see what your neighbors are saying or recently said but not what either they or their physical surroundings look like Town meetings are continuous and discussions rage on everything from sexual kinks to depreciation schedules Whether by one telephonic tendril or millions they are all connected to one another Collectively they form what their inhabitants call the Net It extends across that immense region of electron states microwaves magnetic fields light pulses and thought which sci fi writer William Gibson named Cyberspace John Perry Barlow Crime and Puzzlement 1990 06 08 As Barlow and the EFF continued public education efforts to promote the idea of digital rights the term was increasingly used during the Internet boom of the late 1990s Virtual environments Edit Although the present day loose use of the term cyberspace no longer implies or suggests immersion in a virtual reality current technology allows the integration of a number of capabilities sensors signals connections transmissions processors and controllers sufficient to generate a virtual interactive experience that is accessible regardless of a geographic location It is for these reasons cyberspace has been described as the ultimate tax haven 16 In 1989 Autodesk an American multinational corporation that focuses on 2D and 3D design software developed a virtual design system called Cyberspace 17 Recent definitions of Cyberspace Edit Although several definitions of cyberspace can be found both in scientific literature and in official governmental sources there is no fully agreed official definition yet According to F D Kramer there are 28 different definitions of the term cyberspace See in particular the following links Cyberpower and National Security Policy Recommendations for a Strategic Framework in Cyberpower and National Security FD Kramer S Starr L K Wentz ed National Defense University Press Washington DC 2009 see also Mayer M Chiarugi I De Scalzi N https www academia edu 14336129 International Politics in the Digital Age The most recent draft definition is the following Cyberspace is a global and dynamic domain subject to constant change characterized by the combined use of electrons and the electromagnetic spectrum whose purpose is to create store modify exchange share and extract use eliminate information and disrupt physical resources Cyberspace includes a physical infrastructures and telecommunications devices that allow for the connection of technological and communication system networks understood in the broadest sense SCADA devices smartphones tablets computers servers etc b computer systems see point a and the related sometimes embedded software that guarantee the domain s basic operational functioning and connectivity c networks between computer systems d networks of networks that connect computer systems the distinction between networks and networks of networks is mainly organizational e the access nodes of users and intermediaries routing nodes f constituent data or resident data Often in common parlance and sometimes in commercial language networks of networks are called the Internet with a lowercase i while networks between computers are called intranet Internet with a capital I in journalistic language sometimes called the Net can be considered a part of the system a A distinctive and constitutive feature of cyberspace is that no central entity exercises control over all the networks that make up this new domain 18 Just as in the real world there is no world government cyberspace lacks an institutionally predefined hierarchical center To cyberspace a domain without a hierarchical ordering principle we can therefore extend the definition of international politics coined by Kenneth Waltz as being with no system of law enforceable This does not mean that the dimension of power in cyberspace is absent nor that power is dispersed and scattered into a thousand invisible streams nor that it is evenly spread across myriad people and organizations as some scholars had predicted On the contrary cyberspace is characterized by a precise structuring of hierarchies of power 19 The Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States Department of Defense define cyberspace as one of five interdependent domains the remaining four being land air maritime and space 20 See United States Cyber CommandCyberspace as an Internet metaphor EditSee also Internet metaphors While cyberspace should not be confused with the Internet the term is often used to refer to objects and identities that exist largely within the communication network itself so that a website for example might be metaphorically said to exist in cyberspace 21 According to this interpretation events taking place on the Internet are not happening in the locations where participants or servers are physically located but in cyberspace The philosopher Michel Foucault used the term heterotopias to describe such spaces which are simultaneously physical and mental Firstly cyberspace describes the flow of digital data through the network of interconnected computers it is at once not real since one could not spatially locate it as a tangible object and clearly real in its effects There have been several attempts to create a concise model about how cyberspace works since it is not a physical thing that can be looked at 22 Secondly cyberspace is the site of computer mediated communication CMC in which online relationships and alternative forms of online identity were enacted raising important questions about the social psychology of Internet use the relationship between online and offline forms of life and interaction and the relationship between the real and the virtual Cyberspace draws attention to remediation of culture through new media technologies it is not just a communication tool but a social destination and is culturally significant in its own right Finally cyberspace can be seen as providing new opportunities to reshape society and culture through hidden identities or it can be seen as borderless communication and culture 23 Cyberspace is the place where a telephone conversation appears to occur Not inside your actual phone the plastic device on your desk Not inside the other person s phone in some other city The place between the phones in the past twenty years this electrical space which was once thin and dark and one dimensional little more than a narrow speaking tube stretching from phone to phone has flung itself open like a gigantic jack in the box Light has flooded upon it the eerie light of the glowing computer screen This dark electric netherworld has become a vast flowering electronic landscape Since the 1960s the world of the telephone has cross bred itself with computers and television and though there is still no substance to cyberspace nothing you can handle it has a strange kind of physicality now It makes good sense today to talk of cyberspace as a place all its own Bruce Sterling Introduction to The Hacker Crackdown The space in cyberspace has more in common with the abstract mathematical meanings of the term see space than physical space It does not have the duality of positive and negative volume while in physical space for example a room has the negative volume of usable space delineated by positive volume of walls Internet users cannot enter the screen and explore the unknown part of the Internet as an extension of the space they are in but spatial meaning can be attributed to the relationship between different pages of books as well as web servers considering the unturned pages to be somewhere out there The concept of cyberspace therefore refers not to the content being presented to the surfer but rather to the possibility of surfing among different sites with feedback loops between the user and the rest of the system creating the potential to always encounter something unknown or unexpected Video games differ from text based communication in that on screen images are meant to be figures that actually occupy a space and the animation shows the movement of those figures Images are supposed to form the positive volume that delineates the empty space A game adopts the cyberspace metaphor by engaging more players in the game and then figuratively representing them on the screen as avatars Games do not have to stop at the avatar player level but current implementations aiming for more immersive playing space i e Laser tag take the form of augmented reality rather than cyberspace fully immersive virtual realities remaining impractical Although the more radical consequences of the global communication network predicted by some cyberspace proponents i e the diminishing of state influence envisioned by John Perry Barlow 24 failed to materialize and the word lost some of its novelty appeal it remains current as of 2006 update 6 25 Some virtual communities explicitly refer to the concept of cyberspace for example Linden Lab calling their customers Residents of Second Life while all such communities can be positioned in cyberspace for explanatory and comparative purposes as did Sterling in The Hacker Crackdown followed by many journalists integrating the metaphor into a wider cyber culture The metaphor has been useful in helping a new generation of thought leaders to reason through new military strategies around the world led largely by the US Department of Defense DoD 26 The use of cyberspace as a metaphor has had its limits however especially in areas where the metaphor becomes confused with physical infrastructure It has also been critiqued as being unhelpful for falsely employing a spatial metaphor to describe what is inherently a network 21 Alternate realities in philosophy and art EditPredating computers Edit A forerunner of the modern ideas of cyberspace is the Cartesian notion that people might be deceived by an evil demon that feeds them a false reality This argument is the direct predecessor of modern ideas of a brain in a vat and many popular conceptions of cyberspace take Descartes s ideas as their starting point Visual arts have a tradition stretching back to antiquity of artifacts meant to fool the eye and be mistaken for reality This questioning of reality occasionally led some philosophers and especially theologians 27 to distrust art as deceiving people into entering a world which was not real see Aniconism The artistic challenge was resurrected with increasing ambition as art became more and more realistic with the invention of photography film see Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat and immersive computer simulations Influenced by computers Edit Philosophy Edit American counterculture exponents like William S Burroughs whose literary influence on Gibson and cyberpunk in general is widely acknowledged 28 29 and Timothy Leary 30 were among the first to extol the potential of computers and computer networks for individual empowerment 31 Some contemporary philosophers and scientists e g David Deutsch in The Fabric of Reality employ virtual reality in various thought experiments For example Philip Zhai in Get Real A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality connects cyberspace to the Platonic tradition Let us imagine a nation in which everyone is hooked up to a network of VR infrastructure They have been so hooked up since they left their mother s wombs Immersed in cyberspace and maintaining their life by teleoperation they have never imagined that life could be any different from that The first person that thinks of the possibility of an alternative world like ours would be ridiculed by the majority of these citizens just like the few enlightened ones in Plato s allegory of the cave Note that this brain in a vat argument conflates cyberspace with reality while the more common descriptions of cyberspace contrast it with the real world Cyber Geography Edit The Geography of Notopia Papadimitriou 2006 theorizes about the complex interplay of cyber cultures and the geographical space This interplay has several philosophical and psychological facets Papadimitriou 2009 A New Communication Model Edit The technological convergence of the mass media is the result of a long adaptation process of their communicative resources to the evolutionary changes of each historical moment Thus the new media became plurally an extension of the traditional media in cyberspace allowing to the public access information in a wide range of digital devices 32 In other words it is a cultural virtualization of human reality as a result of the migration from physical to virtual space mediated by the ICTs ruled by codes signs and particular social relationships Forwards arise instant ways of communication interaction and possible quick access to information in which we are no longer mere senders but also producers reproducers co workers and providers New technologies also help to connect people from different cultures outside the virtual space which was unthinkable fifty years ago In this giant relationships web we mutually absorb each other s beliefs customs values laws and habits cultural legacies perpetuated by a physical virtual dynamics in constant metamorphosis ibidem In this sense Professor Doctor Marcelo Mendonca Teixeira created in 2013 a new model of communication to the virtual universe 33 based in Claude Elwood Shannon 1948 article A Mathematical Theory of Communication Art Edit Main article New media art Having originated among writers the concept of cyberspace remains most popular in literature and film Although artists working with other media have expressed interest in the concept such as Roy Ascott cyberspace in digital art is mostly used as a synonym for immersive virtual reality and remains more discussed than enacted 34 Computer crime Edit Main article Computer crime Cyberspace also brings together every service and facility imaginable to expedite money laundering One can purchase anonymous credit cards bank accounts encrypted global mobile telephones and false passports From there one can pay professional advisors to set up IBCs International Business Corporations or corporations with anonymous ownership or similar structures in OFCs Offshore Financial Centers Such advisors are loath to ask any penetrating questions about the wealth and activities of their clients since the average fees criminals pay them to launder their money can be as much as 20 percent 35 5 level model Edit In 2010 a five level model was designed in France According to this model cyberspace is composed of five layers based on information discoveries 1 language 2 writing 3 printing 4 Internet 5 Etc i e the rest e g noosphere artificial life artificial intelligence etc etc This original model links the world of information to telecommunication technologies See also EditAugmented browsing Artificial intelligence Autonomy Computer security Cyber HUMINT Cyberwarfare Cyber security standards Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development Wired glove Online magazine Cybersex Crypto anarchism Digital pet Esports Global commons Information superhighway Infosphere Internet art Legal aspects of computing Wikipedia Link surfing Real life Metaverse Mixed reality Multi agent system Noosphere Simulated reality Social software Computer program Sentience Telepresence Virtual world Virtual reality World Wide WebFurther reading EditBranch J 2020 What s in a Name Metaphors and Cybersecurity International Organization References Edit Govind Warrier Vinu The globe is now officially open for business the advertising of cyberspace globalization and the politics of cyberculture OCLC 1108665848 Cyberspace Definition of cyberspace in US English by Oxford Dictionaries Archived from the original on February 18 2013 Strate Lance 1999 The varieties of cyberspace Problems in definition and delimitation Western Journal of Communication 63 3 382 83 doi 10 1080 10570319909374648 Steiger Stefan Harnisch Sebastian Zettl Kerstin Lohmann Johannes 2018 01 02 Conceptualising conflicts in cyberspace Journal of Cyber Policy 3 1 77 95 doi 10 1080 23738871 2018 1453526 ISSN 2373 8871 Richard A Spinello Cyberethics Morality and Law in Cyberspace a b White House The National Strategy To Secure Cyberspace United States President 2001 2009 Bush 2003 The national strategy to secure cyberspace White House link to the pdf Morningstar Chip and F Randall Farmer The Lessons of Lucasfilm s Habitat The New Media Reader Ed Wardrip Fruin and Nick Montfort The MIT Press 2003 664 667 Print a b The Re invention of Cyberspace Archived from the original on 2015 08 26 Retrieved 2015 08 24 Introduction to the exhibition Statens Museum for Kunst Archived from the original on 2016 07 17 Retrieved 2015 08 24 Scott Thil March 17 2009 March 17 1948 William Gibson Father of Cyberspace WIRED Gibson William 1984 Neuromancer New York Ace Books p 69 ISBN 978 0 441 56956 4 Vanderbilt University Postmodernism and the Culture of Cyberspace Archived 2007 01 07 at the Wayback Machine Fall 1996 course syllabus Principia Cybernetica Cyberspace John Perry Barlow Crime and Puzzlement Archived 2012 01 01 at the Wayback Machine June 8 1990 William Rees Mogg James Dale Davidson 1997 The Sovereign Individual Simon amp Schuster p 8 ISBN 978 0684832722 Andrew Pollack New York Times For Artificial Reality Wear A Computer April 10 1989 Definition by Marco Mayer Luigi Martino Pablo Mazurier and Gergana Tzvetkova Draft Pisa 19 May 2014 https www academia edu 7096442 How would you define Cyberspace The most recent analysis of the interaction of Cyberspace and International politics has been investigated in the MIT Harvard and CFR ECIR project Explorations in Cyber International Relations http ecir mit edu ECIR Principal Investigator is Nazli Choucri 1 DoD Joint Publication 3 12 R Cyberspace Operations 5 February 2013 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2018 01 27 Retrieved 2018 12 01 a b Graham Mark 2013 Geography internet Ethereal alternate dimensions of cyberspace or grounded augmented realities The Geographical Journal 179 2 177 182 doi 10 1111 geoj 12009 Bryant William November December 2013 Cyberspace Superiority A Conceptual Model PDF Air amp Space Power Journal 27 25 44 Archived PDF from the original on 2017 03 04 Retrieved 2018 10 29 New Media an Introduction Flew Terry John Perry Barlow A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace February 8 1996 FindLaw Legal News site Tech and IP Cyberspace section retrieved November 14 2006 Cyber Conflict Studies Association CCSA Ranging across history from the interference of depictions of newly died in the Great Dreaming of Australian aboriginal ancestors East Roman Byzantine iconoclasm movements in the 8th and 8th c CE in Islam Sunni and other exegetes from the 9th century onward in Judaism Joseph Karo s Shulkhan Arukh Code of Jewish Law Venice 1563 and in the Bahai faith the concerns of Shoghi Effendi the Guardian of the Baha i Faith 1921 57 Alexander Laurence An Interview with John Shirley 1994 Burroughs Gysin Throbbing Gristle retrieved December 31 2006 Internet will be the LSD of the 90s quoted by an on line biography Archived 2006 12 09 at the Wayback Machine Douglas Rushkoff Godfathers of Cyberspace Teixeira Marcelo Mendonca Ferreira Tiago Alessandro Espinola 2014 01 28 The Communication Model of Virtual Universe Munich Grin Verlag ISBN 9783656569916 The Communication Model of Virtual Universe Amazon co uk Marcelo MendonA a Teixeira Tiago Alessandro EspAnola Ferreira 9783656569916 Books ASIN 3656569916 Eduardo Kac Telepresence Art Archived 2009 07 13 at the Portuguese Web Archive Granville Johanna 2003 Dot Con The Dangers of Cyber Crime and a Call for Proactive Solutions Australian Journal of Politics and History 49 102 109 doi 10 1111 1467 8497 00284 Sources Edit Cyberculture The key Concepts edited by David Bell Brian D Loader Nicholas Pleace and Douglas Schuler Christine Buci Glucksmann L art a l epoque virtuel in Frontieres esthetiques de l art Arts 8 Paris L Harmattan 2004 William Gibson Neuromancer 20th Anniversary Edition New York Ace Books 2004 Oliver Grau Virtual Art From Illusion to Immersion MIT Press Cambridge 2003 4 Auflagen David Koepsell The Ontology of Cyberspace Chicago Open Court 2000 Ippolito Jon December 1998 January 1999 Cross Talk Is Cyberspace Really a Space Artbyte 12 24 Irvine Martin Postmodern Science Fiction and Cyberpunk retrieved 2006 07 19 Slater Don 2002 Social Relationships and Identity Online and Offline in L Lievrouw and S Livingston eds The Handbook of New Media Sage London pp533 46 Graham Mark 2011 Time machines and virtual portals Progress in Development Studies 11 3 211 227 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 659 9379 doi 10 1177 146499341001100303 S2CID 17281619 Sterling Bruce The Hacker Crackdown Law and Disorder On the Electronic Frontier Spectra Books 1992 Zhai Philip Get Real A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality New York Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers 1998 Teixeira Marcelo Mendonca 2012 Cyberculture From Plato To The Virtual Universe The Architecture of Collective Intelligence Munich Grin Verlag External links Edit Look up cyberspace in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cyberspace A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace by John Perry Barlow A Critique of the word Cyberspace at ZeroGeography Virtual Reality Photos Austria by Johann Steininger Peculiarities of Cyberspace by Albert Benschop Sex Religion and Cyberspace by Richard Thieme Get Real A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality by Philip Zhai Brains in a vat philosophical argument against the idea that we could be in cyberspace and not know it by Hilary Putnam Cyberspace as a Domain In which the Air Force Flies and Fights Speech by Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne DOD Cyberspace DHS National Cybersecurity Division what is cyberspace Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Cyberspace amp oldid 1131028362, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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