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Aboriginal Australians

Aboriginal Australians are the various Indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, such as the peoples of Tasmania, Fraser Island, Hinchinbrook Island, the Tiwi Islands, and Groote Eylandt, but excluding the Torres Strait Islands. The term Indigenous Australians refers to Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders collectively. It is generally used when both groups are included in the topic being addressed. Torres Strait Islanders are ethnically and culturally distinct, despite extensive cultural exchange with some of the Aboriginal groups. The Torres Strait Islands are mostly part of Queensland but have a separate governmental status.

Aboriginal Australians
Total population
759,705 (2016)[1]
3.1% of Australia's population
Regions with significant populations
 Northern Territory30.3%
 Tasmania5.5%
 Queensland4.6%
 Western Australia3.9%
 New South Wales3.4%
 South Australia2.5%
 Australian Capital Territory1.9%
 Victoria0.9%
Languages
Several hundred Australian Aboriginal languages, many no longer spoken, Australian English, Australian Aboriginal English, Kriol
Religion
Majority Christian (mainly Anglican and Catholic),[2] minority no religious affiliation,[2] and small numbers of other religions, various local indigenous religions grounded in Australian Aboriginal mythology
Related ethnic groups
Torres Strait Islanders, Aboriginal Tasmanians, Papuans
Aboriginal dwellings in Hermannsburg, Northern Territory, 1923. Image: Herbert Basedow

Aboriginal Australians comprise many distinct peoples who have developed across Australia for over 50,000 years. These peoples have a broadly shared, though complex, genetic history, but only in the last 200 years have they been defined and started to self-identify as a single group. Australian Aboriginal identity has changed over time and place, with family lineage, self-identification and community acceptance all being of varying importance.

In the past, Aboriginal Australians lived over large sections of the continental shelf and were isolated on many of the smaller offshore islands and Tasmania when the land was inundated at the start of the Holocene inter-glacial period, about 11,700 years ago. Studies regarding the genetic make-up of Aboriginal groups are still ongoing, but evidence has suggested that they have genetic inheritance from ancient Asian but not more modern peoples, share some similarities with Papuans, but have been isolated from Southeast Asia for a very long time. Before extensive European settlement, there were over 250 Aboriginal languages.[3][4]

In the 2016 Australian Census, Indigenous Australians comprised 3.3% of Australia's population, with 91% of these identifying as Aboriginal only, 5% Torres Strait Islander, and 4% both. They also live throughout the world as part of the Australian diaspora.

Most Aboriginal people speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English (which also has a tangible influence of Aboriginal languages in the phonology and grammatical structure).

Aboriginal people, along with Torres Strait Islander people, have a number of health and economic deprivations in comparison with the wider Australian community.

Origins

 
Aboriginal dancers in 1981
 
Arnhem Land artist Glen Namundja painting at Injalak Arts
 
Didgeridoo player Ŋalkan Munuŋgurr performing with East Journey[5]

The ancestors of present-day Aboriginal Australian people migrated from South East Asia by sea during the Pleistocene epoch and lived over large sections of the Australian continental shelf when the sea levels were lower and Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea were part of the same landmass, known as Sahul. As sea levels rose, the people on the Australian mainland and nearby islands became increasingly isolated, and some were isolated on Tasmania and some of the smaller offshore islands when the land was inundated at the start of the Holocene, the inter-glacial period which started about 11,700 years ago and persists today.[6] Prehistorians believe that it would have been difficult for Aboriginal people to have originated purely from mainland Asia, and not enough numbers would have made it to Australia and surrounding islands to fulfil the beginning of the population that we have seen in the last century. This is why it is commonly believed that most Aboriginal Australians have originated from South East Asia, and if this is the case, Aboriginal Australians would have been among the first in the world to have completed successful sea voyages.[7]

A 2017 paper in Nature evaluated artefacts in Kakadu and concluded "Human occupation began around 65,000 years ago".[8]

A 2021 study by researchers at the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage has mapped the likely migration routes of the peoples as they moved across the Australian continent to its southern reaches of what is now Tasmania, then part of the mainland. The modelling is based on data from archaeologists, anthropologists, ecologists, geneticists, climatologists, geomorphologists, and hydrologists, and it is intended to compare the modelling with the oral histories of Aboriginal peoples, including Dreaming stories, as well as Australian rock art and linguistic features of the many Aboriginal languages. The routes, dubbed "superhighways" by the authors, are similar to current highways and stock routes in Australia. Lynette Russell of Monash University sees the new model as a starting point for collaboration with Aboriginal people to help uncover their history. The new models suggest that the first people may have first landed in the Kimberley region in what is now Western Australia about 60,000 years ago, and had settled across the continent within 6,000 years.[9][10] A 2018 study using archaeobotany dated evidence of continuous human habitation at Karnatukul (Serpent's Glen) in the Carnarvon Range in the Little Sandy Desert in WA from around 50,000 years ago.[11][12][13]

Genetics

Genetic studies have revealed that Aboriginal Australians largely descended from an Eastern Eurasian population wave, and are most closely related to other Oceanians, such as Melanesians. The Aboriginal Australians also show affinity to other Australasian populations, such as Negritos or indigenous South Asian groups, such as the Andamanese people, as well as to East Asian peoples. Phylogenetic data suggests that an early initial eastern lineage (ENA) trifurcated somewhere in South Asia, and gave rise to Australasians (Oceanians), indigenous South Asians/Andamanese, and the East/Southeast Asian lineage including ancestors of the Native Americans. However, Papuans and Aboriginal Australians may have received approximately 2% of their geneflow from an earlier group (xOOA)[14] as well, next to additional archaic admixture in the Sahul region.[15][16]

 
PCA of Orang Asli (Semang) and Andamanese, with worldwide populations in HGDP.[17]
 
Noongar traditional dancers, Perth, Australia

Aboriginal people are genetically most similar to the indigenous populations of Papua New Guinea, and more distantly related to groups from East Indonesia. They are more distinct from the indigenous populations of Borneo and Malaysia, sharing drift with them than compared to the groups from Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. This indicates that populations in Australia were isolated for a long time from the rest of Southeast Asia, and remained untouched by migrations and population expansions into that area, which can be explained by the Wallace line.[18]

In a 2001 study, blood samples were collected from some Warlpiri people in the Northern Territory, to study their genetic makeup (which is not representative of all Aboriginal peoples in Australia). The study concluded that the Warlpiri are descended from ancient Asians whose DNA is still somewhat present in Southeastern Asian groups, although greatly diminished. The Warlpiri DNA lacks certain information found in modern Asian genomes, and carries information not found in other genomes, reinforcing the idea of ancient Aboriginal isolation.[18]

Genetic data extracted in 2011 by Morten Rasmussen et al., who took a DNA sample from an early-20th-century lock of an Aboriginal person's hair, found that the Aboriginal ancestors probably migrated through South Asia and Maritime Southeast Asia, into Australia, where they stayed, with the result that, outside of Africa, the Aboriginal peoples have occupied the same territory continuously longer than any other human populations. These findings suggest that modern Aboriginal Australians are the direct descendants of the eastern wave, who left Africa up to 75,000 years ago.[19][20] This finding is compatible with earlier archaeological finds of human remains near Lake Mungo that date to approximately 40,000 years ago.[citation needed] The idea of the "oldest continuous culture" is based on the geographical isolation of the Aboriginal peoples, with little or no interaction with outside cultures before some contact with Makassan fishermen and Dutch explorers up to 500 years BP.[citation needed]

The Rasmussen study also found evidence that Aboriginal peoples carry some of the genes associated with the Denisovans (a species of human related to but distinct from Neanderthals) of Asia; the study suggests that there is an increase in allele sharing between the Denisovan and Aboriginal Australian genomes, compared to other Eurasians or Africans. Examining DNA from a finger bone excavated in Siberia, researchers concluded that the Denisovans migrated from Siberia to tropical parts of Asia and that they interbred with modern humans in South-East Asia 44,000 years BP, before Australia separated from New Guinea approximately 11,700 years BP. They contributed DNA to Aboriginal Australians along with present-day New Guineans and an indigenous tribe in the Philippines known as Mamanwa. This study makes Aboriginal Australians one of the oldest living populations in the world and possibly the oldest outside of Africa, confirming they may also have the oldest continuous culture on the planet.[21]

A 2016 study at the University of Cambridge by Christopher Klein et al. suggests that it was about 50,000 years ago that these peoples reached Sahul (the supercontinent consisting of present-day Australia and its islands and New Guinea). The sea levels rose and isolated Australia (and Tasmania) about 10,000 years ago, but Aboriginal Australians and Papuans diverged from each other genetically earlier, about 37,000 years BP, possibly because the remaining land bridge was impassable, and it was this isolation which makes it the world's oldest culture. The study also found evidence of an unknown hominin group, distantly related to Denisovans, with whom the Aboriginal and Papuan ancestors must have interbred, leaving a trace of about 4% in most Aboriginal Australians' genome. There is, however, increased genetic diversity among Aboriginal Australians based on geographical distribution.[22]

 
The initial human settlement of Oceania is estimated to be between 60 and 40 kya. The archaeogenetic results indicate a colonization of Australia (southern Sahul) before 37 kya and an incubation period in northern Sahul (Papua New Guinea) followed by westward expansions within Australia after ~28 kya. Principal component analysis of ancient and present-day individuals from Eurasian populations.[23]

Carlhoff et al. 2021 analyzed a Holocene hunter-gatherer sample ("Leang Panninge") from South Sulawesi, which shares high amounts of genetic drift with Aboriginal Australians and Papuans, which suggests to represent a population which split from the common ancestor of Aboriginal Australians and Papuans. The sample also shows genetic affinity for East Asians and Andamanese people of South Asia. The authors note that this hunter-gatherer sample can be modeled with ~50% Papuan-related ancestry and either with ~50% East Asian or Andamanese Onge ancestry, highlighting the deep split between Leang Panninge and Aboriginal/Papuans.[24]

Two genetic studies by Larena et al. 2021 found that Philippines Negrito people split from the common ancestor of Aboriginal Australians and Papuans before they diverged from each other, but after their common ancestor diverged from the ancestor of East Asian peoples.[25][26]

Changes around 4,000 years ago

The dingo reached Australia about 4,000 years ago, and around the same time there were changes in language (with the Pama-Nyungan language family spreading over most of the mainland), and in stone tool technology, with the use of smaller tools. Human contact has thus been inferred, and genetic data of two kinds have been proposed to support a gene flow from India to Australia: firstly, signs of South Asian components in Aboriginal Australian genomes, reported on the basis of genome-wide SNP data; and secondly, the existence of a Y chromosome (male) lineage, designated haplogroup C∗, with the most recent common ancestor around 5,000 years ago.[27] The first type of evidence comes from a 2013 study by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology using large-scale genotyping data from a pool of Aboriginal Australians, New Guineans, island Southeast Asians, and Indians. It found that the New Guinea and Mamanwa (Philippines area) groups diverged from the Aboriginal about 36,000 years ago (and supporting evidence that these populations are descended from migrants taking an early "southern route” out of Africa, before other groups in the area), and also that the Indian and Australian populations mixed well before European contact, with this gene flow occurring during the Holocene (c. 4,200 years ago).[28] The researchers had two theories for this: either some Indians had contact with people in Indonesia who eventually transferred those Indian genes to Aboriginal Australians, or that a group of Indians migrated all the way from India to Australia and intermingled with the locals directly.[29][30]

However, a 2016 study in Current Biology by Anders Bergström et al. excluded the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia. The study authors sequenced 13 Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes using recent advances in gene sequencing technology, investigating their divergence times from Y chromosomes in other continents, including comparing the haplogroup C chromosomes. They found a divergence time of about 54,100 years between the Sahul C chromosome and its closest relative C5, as well as about 54,300 years between haplogroups K*/M and their closest haplogroups R and Q. The deep divergence time of 50,000+ years with the South Asian chromosome and "the fact that the Aboriginal Australian Cs share a more recent common ancestor with Papuan Cs" excludes any recent genetic contact.[27]

The 2016 study's authors concluded that, although this does not disprove the presence of any Holocene gene flow or non-genetic influences from South Asia at that time, and the appearance of the dingo does provide strong evidence for external contacts, the evidence overall is consistent with a complete lack of gene flow, and points to indigenous origins for the technological and linguistic changes. They attributed the disparity between their results and previous findings to improvements in technology; none of the other studies had utilized complete Y chromosome sequencing, which has the highest precision. For example, use of a ten Y STRs method has been shown to massively underestimate divergence times. Gene flow across the island-dotted 150-kilometre-wide (93 mi) Torres Strait, is both geographically plausible and demonstrated by the data, although at this point it could not be determined from this study when within the last 10,000 years it may have occurred – newer analytical techniques have the potential to address such questions.[27]

Bergstrom's 2018 doctoral thesis looking at the population of Sahul suggests that other than relatively recent admixture, the populations of the region appear to have been genetically independent from the rest of the world since their divergence about 50,000 years ago. He writes "There is no evidence for South Asian gene flow to Australia .... Despite Sahul being a single connected landmass until [8,000 years ago], different groups across Australia are nearly equally related to Papuans, and vice versa, and the two appear to have separated genetically already [about 30,000 years ago]".[31]

Environmental adaptations

Aboriginal Australians possess inherited abilities to stand a wide range of environmental temperatures in various ways. A study in 1958 comparing cold adaptation in the desert-dwelling Pitjantjatjara people compared with a group of European people showed that the cooling adaptation of the Aboriginal group differed from that of the white people, and that they were able to sleep more soundly through a cold desert night.[32] A 2014 Cambridge University study found that a beneficial mutation in two genes which regulate thyroxine, a hormone involved in regulating body metabolism, helps to regulate body temperature in response to fever. The effect of this is that the desert people are able to have a higher body temperature without accelerating the activity of the whole of the body, which can be especially detrimental in childhood diseases. This helps protect people to survive the side-effects of infection.[33][34]

 
An Aboriginal encampment near the Adelaide foothills in an 1854 painting by Alexander Schramm

Location and demographics

Aboriginal people have lived for tens of thousands of years on the continent of Australia, through its various changes in landmass. The area within Australia's borders today includes the islands of Tasmania, Fraser Island, Hinchinbrook Island,[35] the Tiwi Islands and Groote Eylandt. Indigenous people of the Torres Strait Islands, however, are not Aboriginal.[36][37][38][39]

In the 2016 Australian Census, Indigenous Australians comprised 3.3% of Australia's population, with 91% of these identifying as Aboriginal only, 5% Torres Strait Islander, and 4% both.[40]

Aboriginal people also live throughout the world as part of the Australian diaspora.[citation needed]

Languages

Most Aboriginal people speak English,[41] with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English (which also has a tangible influence of Aboriginal languages in the phonology and grammatical structure).[42] Some Aboriginal people, especially those living in remote areas, are multi-lingual.[41] Many of the original 250–400 Aboriginal languages (more than 250 languages and about 800 dialectal varieties on the continent) are endangered or extinct,[43] although some efforts are being made at language revival for some. As of 2016, only 13 traditional Indigenous languages were still being acquired by children,[44] and about another 100 spoken by older generations only.[43]

Aboriginal Australian peoples

 
 
 
 
Clockwise from upper left: traditional lands Victoria, Tasmania, Darwin, Cairns.

Dispersing across the Australian continent over time, the ancient people expanded and differentiated into distinct groups, each with its own language and culture.[45] More than 400 distinct Australian Aboriginal peoples have been identified, distinguished by names designating their ancestral languages, dialects, or distinctive speech patterns.[46] According to noted anthropologist, archaeologist and sociologist Harry Lourandos, historically, these groups lived in three main cultural areas, the Northern, Southern, and Central cultural areas. The Northern and Southern areas, having richer natural marine and woodland resources, were more densely populated than the Central area.[45]

 
Men from Bathurst Island, 1939

Geographically-based names

There are various other names from Australian Aboriginal languages commonly used to identify groups based on geography, known as demonyms, including:

A few examples of sub-groups

Other group names are based on the language group or specific dialect spoken. These also coincide with geographical regions of varying sizes. A few examples are:

Difficulties defining groups

However these lists are neither exhaustive nor definitive, and there are overlaps. Different approaches have been taken by non-Aboriginal scholars in trying to understand and define Aboriginal culture and societies, some focusing on the micro-level (tribe, clan, etc.), and others on shared languages and cultural practices spread over large regions defined by ecological factors. Anthropologists have encountered many difficulties in trying to define what constitutes an Aboriginal people/community/group/tribe, let alone naming them. Knowledge of pre-colonial Aboriginal cultures and societal groupings is still largely dependent on the observers' interpretations, which were filtered through colonial ways of viewing societies.[49]

Some Aboriginal peoples identify as one of several saltwater, freshwater, rainforest or desert peoples.

Aboriginal identity

The term Aboriginal Australians includes many distinct peoples who have developed across Australia for over 50,000 years.[8][50] These peoples have a broadly shared, though complex, genetic history,[51][30] but it is only in the last two hundred years that they have been defined and started to self-identify as a single group, socio-politically.[52][53] While some preferred the term Aborigine to Aboriginal in the past, as the latter was seen to have more directly discriminatory legal origins,[52] use of the term Aborigine has declined in recent decades, as many consider the term an offensive and racist hangover from Australia's colonial era.[54][55]

The definition of the term Aboriginal has changed over time and place, with the importance of family lineage, self-identification and community acceptance all being of varying importance.[56][57][58]

The term Indigenous Australians refers to Aboriginal Australians as well as Torres Strait Islander peoples, and the term is conventionally only used when both groups are included in the topic being addressed, or by self-identification by a person as Indigenous. (Torres Strait Islanders are ethnically and culturally distinct,[59] despite extensive cultural exchange with some of the Aboriginal groups,[60] and the Torres Strait Islands are mostly part of Queensland but have a separate governmental status.) Some Aboriginal people object to being labelled Indigenous, as an artificial and denialist term.[53]

Culture and beliefs

Australian Indigenous people have beliefs unique to each mob (tribe) and have a strong connection to the land.[61][62] Contemporary Indigenous Australian beliefs are a complex mixture, varying by region and individual across the continent.[63] They are shaped by traditional beliefs, the disruption of colonisation, religions brought to the continent by Europeans, and contemporary issues.[63][64][65] Traditional cultural beliefs are passed down and shared by dancing, stories, songlines, and art – especially Papunya Tula (dot painting) – collectively telling the story of creation known as The Dreamtime.[66][61] Additionally, traditional healers were also custodians of important Dreaming stories as well as their medical roles (for example the Ngangkari in the Western desert).[67] Some core structures and themes are shared across the continent with details and additional elements varying between language and cultural groups.[63] For example, in The Dreamtime of most regions, a spirit creates the earth then tells the humans to treat the animals and the earth in a way which is respectful to land. In Northern Territory this is commonly said to be a huge snake or snakes that weaved its way through the earth and sky making the mountains and oceans. But in other places the spirits who created the world are known as wandjina rain and water spirits. Major ancestral spirits include the Rainbow Serpent, Baiame, Dirawong and Bunjil. Similarly, the Arrernte people of central Australia believed that humanity originated from great superhuman ancestors who brought the sun, wind and rain as a result of breaking through the surface of the Earth when waking from their slumber.[7]

Health and disadvantage

Aboriginal Australians, along with Torres Strait Islander people, have a number of health and economic deprivations in comparison with the wider Australian community.[68][69]

Due to the aforementioned disadvantage, Aboriginal Australian communities experience a higher rate of suicide, as compared to non-indigenous communities. These issues stem from a variety of different causes unique to indigenous communities, such as historical trauma,[70] socioeconomic disadvantage, and decreased access to education and health care.[71] Also, this problem largely affects indigenous youth, as many indigenous youth may feel disconnected from their culture.[72]

To combat the increased suicide rate, many researchers have suggested that the inclusion of more cultural aspects into suicide prevention programs would help to combat mental health issues within the community. Past studies have found that many indigenous leaders and community members, do in fact, want more culturally-aware health care programs.[73] Similarly, culturally-relative programs targeting indigenous youth have actively challenged suicide ideation among younger indigenous populations, with many social and emotional wellbeing programs using cultural information to provide coping mechanisms and improving mental health.[74][75]

Viability of remote communities

 
Historical image of Aboriginal Australian women and children, Maloga, New South Wales around 1900 (in European dress)

The outstation movement of the 1970s and 1980s, when Aboriginal people moved to tiny remote settlements on traditional land, brought health benefits,[76][77] but funding them proved expensive, training and employment opportunities were not provided in many cases, and support from governments dwindled in the 2000s, particularly in the era of the Howard government.[78][79][80]

Indigenous communities in remote Australia are often small, isolated towns with basic facilities, on traditionally-owned land. These communities have between 20 and 300 inhabitants and are often closed to outsiders for cultural reasons. The long-term viability and resilience of Aboriginal communities in desert areas has been discussed by scholars and policy-makers. A 2007 report by the CSIRO stressed the importance of taking a demand-driven approach to services in desert settlements, and concluded that "if top-down solutions continue to be imposed without appreciating the fundamental drivers of settlement in desert regions, then those solutions will continue to be partial, and ineffective in the long term".[81]

See also

References

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  This article incorporates text by Anders Bergström et al. available under the CC BY 4.0 license.

Further reading

  • "Start exploring Australian Aboriginal culture". Creative Spirits. 24 December 2018.
  • "Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies". AIATSIS.

External links

  •   Media related to Aboriginal Australians at Wikimedia Commons

aboriginal, australians, been, suggested, that, this, article, merged, into, indigenous, australians, discuss, proposed, since, february, 2023, this, article, about, australian, aboriginal, peoples, historical, contemporary, information, which, relates, indige. It has been suggested that this article be merged into Indigenous Australians Discuss Proposed since February 2023 This article is about Australian Aboriginal peoples For historical and contemporary information which relates to the indigenous population in general including the Torres Strait Islanders see Indigenous Australians Aboriginal Australians are the various Indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands such as the peoples of Tasmania Fraser Island Hinchinbrook Island the Tiwi Islands and Groote Eylandt but excluding the Torres Strait Islands The term Indigenous Australians refers to Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders collectively It is generally used when both groups are included in the topic being addressed Torres Strait Islanders are ethnically and culturally distinct despite extensive cultural exchange with some of the Aboriginal groups The Torres Strait Islands are mostly part of Queensland but have a separate governmental status Aboriginal AustraliansThe Australian Aboriginal Flag1st row Windradyne David Gulpilil Albert Namatjira David Unaipon Mandawuy Yunupingu 2nd row Truganini Yagan Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu Bennelong Robert TudawaliTotal population759 705 2016 1 3 1 of Australia s populationRegions with significant populations Northern Territory30 3 Tasmania5 5 Queensland4 6 Western Australia3 9 New South Wales3 4 South Australia2 5 Australian Capital Territory1 9 Victoria0 9 LanguagesSeveral hundred Australian Aboriginal languages many no longer spoken Australian English Australian Aboriginal English KriolReligionMajority Christian mainly Anglican and Catholic 2 minority no religious affiliation 2 and small numbers of other religions various local indigenous religions grounded in Australian Aboriginal mythologyRelated ethnic groupsTorres Strait Islanders Aboriginal Tasmanians PapuansAboriginal dwellings in Hermannsburg Northern Territory 1923 Image Herbert Basedow Aboriginal Australians comprise many distinct peoples who have developed across Australia for over 50 000 years These peoples have a broadly shared though complex genetic history but only in the last 200 years have they been defined and started to self identify as a single group Australian Aboriginal identity has changed over time and place with family lineage self identification and community acceptance all being of varying importance In the past Aboriginal Australians lived over large sections of the continental shelf and were isolated on many of the smaller offshore islands and Tasmania when the land was inundated at the start of the Holocene inter glacial period about 11 700 years ago Studies regarding the genetic make up of Aboriginal groups are still ongoing but evidence has suggested that they have genetic inheritance from ancient Asian but not more modern peoples share some similarities with Papuans but have been isolated from Southeast Asia for a very long time Before extensive European settlement there were over 250 Aboriginal languages 3 4 In the 2016 Australian Census Indigenous Australians comprised 3 3 of Australia s population with 91 of these identifying as Aboriginal only 5 Torres Strait Islander and 4 both They also live throughout the world as part of the Australian diaspora Most Aboriginal people speak English with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English which also has a tangible influence of Aboriginal languages in the phonology and grammatical structure Aboriginal people along with Torres Strait Islander people have a number of health and economic deprivations in comparison with the wider Australian community Contents 1 Origins 1 1 Genetics 1 2 Changes around 4 000 years ago 1 3 Environmental adaptations 2 Location and demographics 3 Languages 4 Aboriginal Australian peoples 4 1 Geographically based names 4 2 A few examples of sub groups 4 3 Difficulties defining groups 5 Aboriginal identity 5 1 Culture and beliefs 6 Health and disadvantage 7 Viability of remote communities 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External linksOriginsMain articles History of Indigenous Australians and Prehistory of Australia See also Early human migrations Near Oceania Aboriginal dancers in 1981 Arnhem Land artist Glen Namundja painting at Injalak Arts Didgeridoo player Ŋalkan Munuŋgurr performing with East Journey 5 The ancestors of present day Aboriginal Australian people migrated from South East Asia by sea during the Pleistocene epoch and lived over large sections of the Australian continental shelf when the sea levels were lower and Australia Tasmania and New Guinea were part of the same landmass known as Sahul As sea levels rose the people on the Australian mainland and nearby islands became increasingly isolated and some were isolated on Tasmania and some of the smaller offshore islands when the land was inundated at the start of the Holocene the inter glacial period which started about 11 700 years ago and persists today 6 Prehistorians believe that it would have been difficult for Aboriginal people to have originated purely from mainland Asia and not enough numbers would have made it to Australia and surrounding islands to fulfil the beginning of the population that we have seen in the last century This is why it is commonly believed that most Aboriginal Australians have originated from South East Asia and if this is the case Aboriginal Australians would have been among the first in the world to have completed successful sea voyages 7 A 2017 paper in Nature evaluated artefacts in Kakadu and concluded Human occupation began around 65 000 years ago 8 A 2021 study by researchers at the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage has mapped the likely migration routes of the peoples as they moved across the Australian continent to its southern reaches of what is now Tasmania then part of the mainland The modelling is based on data from archaeologists anthropologists ecologists geneticists climatologists geomorphologists and hydrologists and it is intended to compare the modelling with the oral histories of Aboriginal peoples including Dreaming stories as well as Australian rock art and linguistic features of the many Aboriginal languages The routes dubbed superhighways by the authors are similar to current highways and stock routes in Australia Lynette Russell of Monash University sees the new model as a starting point for collaboration with Aboriginal people to help uncover their history The new models suggest that the first people may have first landed in the Kimberley region in what is now Western Australia about 60 000 years ago and had settled across the continent within 6 000 years 9 10 A 2018 study using archaeobotany dated evidence of continuous human habitation at Karnatukul Serpent s Glen in the Carnarvon Range in the Little Sandy Desert in WA from around 50 000 years ago 11 12 13 GeneticsGenetic studies have revealed that Aboriginal Australians largely descended from an Eastern Eurasian population wave and are most closely related to other Oceanians such as Melanesians The Aboriginal Australians also show affinity to other Australasian populations such as Negritos or indigenous South Asian groups such as the Andamanese people as well as to East Asian peoples Phylogenetic data suggests that an early initial eastern lineage ENA trifurcated somewhere in South Asia and gave rise to Australasians Oceanians indigenous South Asians Andamanese and the East Southeast Asian lineage including ancestors of the Native Americans However Papuans and Aboriginal Australians may have received approximately 2 of their geneflow from an earlier group xOOA 14 as well next to additional archaic admixture in the Sahul region 15 16 PCA of Orang Asli Semang and Andamanese with worldwide populations in HGDP 17 Noongar traditional dancers Perth Australia Aboriginal people are genetically most similar to the indigenous populations of Papua New Guinea and more distantly related to groups from East Indonesia They are more distinct from the indigenous populations of Borneo and Malaysia sharing drift with them than compared to the groups from Papua New Guinea and Indonesia This indicates that populations in Australia were isolated for a long time from the rest of Southeast Asia and remained untouched by migrations and population expansions into that area which can be explained by the Wallace line 18 In a 2001 study blood samples were collected from some Warlpiri people in the Northern Territory to study their genetic makeup which is not representative of all Aboriginal peoples in Australia The study concluded that the Warlpiri are descended from ancient Asians whose DNA is still somewhat present in Southeastern Asian groups although greatly diminished The Warlpiri DNA lacks certain information found in modern Asian genomes and carries information not found in other genomes reinforcing the idea of ancient Aboriginal isolation 18 Genetic data extracted in 2011 by Morten Rasmussen et al who took a DNA sample from an early 20th century lock of an Aboriginal person s hair found that the Aboriginal ancestors probably migrated through South Asia and Maritime Southeast Asia into Australia where they stayed with the result that outside of Africa the Aboriginal peoples have occupied the same territory continuously longer than any other human populations These findings suggest that modern Aboriginal Australians are the direct descendants of the eastern wave who left Africa up to 75 000 years ago 19 20 This finding is compatible with earlier archaeological finds of human remains near Lake Mungo that date to approximately 40 000 years ago citation needed The idea of the oldest continuous culture is based on the geographical isolation of the Aboriginal peoples with little or no interaction with outside cultures before some contact with Makassan fishermen and Dutch explorers up to 500 years BP citation needed The Rasmussen study also found evidence that Aboriginal peoples carry some of the genes associated with the Denisovans a species of human related to but distinct from Neanderthals of Asia the study suggests that there is an increase in allele sharing between the Denisovan and Aboriginal Australian genomes compared to other Eurasians or Africans Examining DNA from a finger bone excavated in Siberia researchers concluded that the Denisovans migrated from Siberia to tropical parts of Asia and that they interbred with modern humans in South East Asia 44 000 years BP before Australia separated from New Guinea approximately 11 700 years BP They contributed DNA to Aboriginal Australians along with present day New Guineans and an indigenous tribe in the Philippines known as Mamanwa This study makes Aboriginal Australians one of the oldest living populations in the world and possibly the oldest outside of Africa confirming they may also have the oldest continuous culture on the planet 21 A 2016 study at the University of Cambridge by Christopher Klein et al suggests that it was about 50 000 years ago that these peoples reached Sahul the supercontinent consisting of present day Australia and its islands and New Guinea The sea levels rose and isolated Australia and Tasmania about 10 000 years ago but Aboriginal Australians and Papuans diverged from each other genetically earlier about 37 000 years BP possibly because the remaining land bridge was impassable and it was this isolation which makes it the world s oldest culture The study also found evidence of an unknown hominin group distantly related to Denisovans with whom the Aboriginal and Papuan ancestors must have interbred leaving a trace of about 4 in most Aboriginal Australians genome There is however increased genetic diversity among Aboriginal Australians based on geographical distribution 22 The initial human settlement of Oceania is estimated to be between 60 and 40 kya The archaeogenetic results indicate a colonization of Australia southern Sahul before 37 kya and an incubation period in northern Sahul Papua New Guinea followed by westward expansions within Australia after 28 kya Principal component analysis of ancient and present day individuals from Eurasian populations 23 Carlhoff et al 2021 analyzed a Holocene hunter gatherer sample Leang Panninge from South Sulawesi which shares high amounts of genetic drift with Aboriginal Australians and Papuans which suggests to represent a population which split from the common ancestor of Aboriginal Australians and Papuans The sample also shows genetic affinity for East Asians and Andamanese people of South Asia The authors note that this hunter gatherer sample can be modeled with 50 Papuan related ancestry and either with 50 East Asian or Andamanese Onge ancestry highlighting the deep split between Leang Panninge and Aboriginal Papuans 24 Two genetic studies by Larena et al 2021 found that Philippines Negrito people split from the common ancestor of Aboriginal Australians and Papuans before they diverged from each other but after their common ancestor diverged from the ancestor of East Asian peoples 25 26 Changes around 4 000 years ago The dingo reached Australia about 4 000 years ago and around the same time there were changes in language with the Pama Nyungan language family spreading over most of the mainland and in stone tool technology with the use of smaller tools Human contact has thus been inferred and genetic data of two kinds have been proposed to support a gene flow from India to Australia firstly signs of South Asian components in Aboriginal Australian genomes reported on the basis of genome wide SNP data and secondly the existence of a Y chromosome male lineage designated haplogroup C with the most recent common ancestor around 5 000 years ago 27 The first type of evidence comes from a 2013 study by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology using large scale genotyping data from a pool of Aboriginal Australians New Guineans island Southeast Asians and Indians It found that the New Guinea and Mamanwa Philippines area groups diverged from the Aboriginal about 36 000 years ago and supporting evidence that these populations are descended from migrants taking an early southern route out of Africa before other groups in the area and also that the Indian and Australian populations mixed well before European contact with this gene flow occurring during the Holocene c 4 200 years ago 28 The researchers had two theories for this either some Indians had contact with people in Indonesia who eventually transferred those Indian genes to Aboriginal Australians or that a group of Indians migrated all the way from India to Australia and intermingled with the locals directly 29 30 However a 2016 study in Current Biology by Anders Bergstrom et al excluded the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia The study authors sequenced 13 Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes using recent advances in gene sequencing technology investigating their divergence times from Y chromosomes in other continents including comparing the haplogroup C chromosomes They found a divergence time of about 54 100 years between the Sahul C chromosome and its closest relative C5 as well as about 54 300 years between haplogroups K M and their closest haplogroups R and Q The deep divergence time of 50 000 years with the South Asian chromosome and the fact that the Aboriginal Australian Cs share a more recent common ancestor with Papuan Cs excludes any recent genetic contact 27 The 2016 study s authors concluded that although this does not disprove the presence of any Holocene gene flow or non genetic influences from South Asia at that time and the appearance of the dingo does provide strong evidence for external contacts the evidence overall is consistent with a complete lack of gene flow and points to indigenous origins for the technological and linguistic changes They attributed the disparity between their results and previous findings to improvements in technology none of the other studies had utilized complete Y chromosome sequencing which has the highest precision For example use of a ten Y STRs method has been shown to massively underestimate divergence times Gene flow across the island dotted 150 kilometre wide 93 mi Torres Strait is both geographically plausible and demonstrated by the data although at this point it could not be determined from this study when within the last 10 000 years it may have occurred newer analytical techniques have the potential to address such questions 27 Bergstrom s 2018 doctoral thesis looking at the population of Sahul suggests that other than relatively recent admixture the populations of the region appear to have been genetically independent from the rest of the world since their divergence about 50 000 years ago He writes There is no evidence for South Asian gene flow to Australia Despite Sahul being a single connected landmass until 8 000 years ago different groups across Australia are nearly equally related to Papuans and vice versa and the two appear to have separated genetically already about 30 000 years ago 31 Environmental adaptations Aboriginal Australians possess inherited abilities to stand a wide range of environmental temperatures in various ways A study in 1958 comparing cold adaptation in the desert dwelling Pitjantjatjara people compared with a group of European people showed that the cooling adaptation of the Aboriginal group differed from that of the white people and that they were able to sleep more soundly through a cold desert night 32 A 2014 Cambridge University study found that a beneficial mutation in two genes which regulate thyroxine a hormone involved in regulating body metabolism helps to regulate body temperature in response to fever The effect of this is that the desert people are able to have a higher body temperature without accelerating the activity of the whole of the body which can be especially detrimental in childhood diseases This helps protect people to survive the side effects of infection 33 34 An Aboriginal encampment near the Adelaide foothills in an 1854 painting by Alexander SchrammLocation and demographicsAboriginal people have lived for tens of thousands of years on the continent of Australia through its various changes in landmass The area within Australia s borders today includes the islands of Tasmania Fraser Island Hinchinbrook Island 35 the Tiwi Islands and Groote Eylandt Indigenous people of the Torres Strait Islands however are not Aboriginal 36 37 38 39 In the 2016 Australian Census Indigenous Australians comprised 3 3 of Australia s population with 91 of these identifying as Aboriginal only 5 Torres Strait Islander and 4 both 40 Aboriginal people also live throughout the world as part of the Australian diaspora citation needed LanguagesMain article Australian Aboriginal languages Most Aboriginal people speak English 41 with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English which also has a tangible influence of Aboriginal languages in the phonology and grammatical structure 42 Some Aboriginal people especially those living in remote areas are multi lingual 41 Many of the original 250 400 Aboriginal languages more than 250 languages and about 800 dialectal varieties on the continent are endangered or extinct 43 although some efforts are being made at language revival for some As of 2016 only 13 traditional Indigenous languages were still being acquired by children 44 and about another 100 spoken by older generations only 43 Aboriginal Australian peoplesSee also List of Australian Aboriginal group names Clockwise from upper left traditional lands Victoria Tasmania Darwin Cairns Dispersing across the Australian continent over time the ancient people expanded and differentiated into distinct groups each with its own language and culture 45 More than 400 distinct Australian Aboriginal peoples have been identified distinguished by names designating their ancestral languages dialects or distinctive speech patterns 46 According to noted anthropologist archaeologist and sociologist Harry Lourandos historically these groups lived in three main cultural areas the Northern Southern and Central cultural areas The Northern and Southern areas having richer natural marine and woodland resources were more densely populated than the Central area 45 Men from Bathurst Island 1939 Geographically based names There are various other names from Australian Aboriginal languages commonly used to identify groups based on geography known as demonyms including Anangu in northern South Australia and neighbouring parts of Western Australia and Northern Territory Goorie variant pronunciation and spelling of Koori in South East Queensland and some parts of northern New South Wales Koori or Koorie in New South Wales and Victoria Aboriginal Victorians Murri in southern Queensland Nunga in southern South Australia Noongar in southern Western Australia Palawah or Pallawah in Tasmania Tiwi on Tiwi Islands off Arnhem Land NT A few examples of sub groups Other group names are based on the language group or specific dialect spoken These also coincide with geographical regions of varying sizes A few examples are Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land NT Arrernte in central Australia 7 Bininj in Western Arnhem Land NT 47 Gunggari in south west Queensland 48 Muruwari people in New South Wales Luritja Kukatja an Anangu sub group based on language Ngunnawal in the Australian Capital Territory and surrounding areas of New South Wales Pitjantjatjara an Anangu sub group based on language Wangai in the Western Australian Goldfields Warlpiri Yapa in western central Northern Territory Yamatji in central Western Australia Yolngu in eastern Arnhem Land NT Difficulties defining groups Further information Indigenous Australians Other groupings However these lists are neither exhaustive nor definitive and there are overlaps Different approaches have been taken by non Aboriginal scholars in trying to understand and define Aboriginal culture and societies some focusing on the micro level tribe clan etc and others on shared languages and cultural practices spread over large regions defined by ecological factors Anthropologists have encountered many difficulties in trying to define what constitutes an Aboriginal people community group tribe let alone naming them Knowledge of pre colonial Aboriginal cultures and societal groupings is still largely dependent on the observers interpretations which were filtered through colonial ways of viewing societies 49 Some Aboriginal peoples identify as one of several saltwater freshwater rainforest or desert peoples Aboriginal identitySee also Australian Aboriginal identity The term Aboriginal Australians includes many distinct peoples who have developed across Australia for over 50 000 years 8 50 These peoples have a broadly shared though complex genetic history 51 30 but it is only in the last two hundred years that they have been defined and started to self identify as a single group socio politically 52 53 While some preferred the term Aborigine to Aboriginal in the past as the latter was seen to have more directly discriminatory legal origins 52 use of the term Aborigine has declined in recent decades as many consider the term an offensive and racist hangover from Australia s colonial era 54 55 The definition of the term Aboriginal has changed over time and place with the importance of family lineage self identification and community acceptance all being of varying importance 56 57 58 The term Indigenous Australians refers to Aboriginal Australians as well as Torres Strait Islander peoples and the term is conventionally only used when both groups are included in the topic being addressed or by self identification by a person as Indigenous Torres Strait Islanders are ethnically and culturally distinct 59 despite extensive cultural exchange with some of the Aboriginal groups 60 and the Torres Strait Islands are mostly part of Queensland but have a separate governmental status Some Aboriginal people object to being labelled Indigenous as an artificial and denialist term 53 Culture and beliefs Main article Australian Aboriginal culture Australian Indigenous people have beliefs unique to each mob tribe and have a strong connection to the land 61 62 Contemporary Indigenous Australian beliefs are a complex mixture varying by region and individual across the continent 63 They are shaped by traditional beliefs the disruption of colonisation religions brought to the continent by Europeans and contemporary issues 63 64 65 Traditional cultural beliefs are passed down and shared by dancing stories songlines and art especially Papunya Tula dot painting collectively telling the story of creation known as The Dreamtime 66 61 Additionally traditional healers were also custodians of important Dreaming stories as well as their medical roles for example the Ngangkari in the Western desert 67 Some core structures and themes are shared across the continent with details and additional elements varying between language and cultural groups 63 For example in The Dreamtime of most regions a spirit creates the earth then tells the humans to treat the animals and the earth in a way which is respectful to land In Northern Territory this is commonly said to be a huge snake or snakes that weaved its way through the earth and sky making the mountains and oceans But in other places the spirits who created the world are known as wandjina rain and water spirits Major ancestral spirits include the Rainbow Serpent Baiame Dirawong and Bunjil Similarly the Arrernte people of central Australia believed that humanity originated from great superhuman ancestors who brought the sun wind and rain as a result of breaking through the surface of the Earth when waking from their slumber 7 Health and disadvantageMain articles Indigenous health in Australia and Closing the Gap Aboriginal Australians along with Torres Strait Islander people have a number of health and economic deprivations in comparison with the wider Australian community 68 69 Due to the aforementioned disadvantage Aboriginal Australian communities experience a higher rate of suicide as compared to non indigenous communities These issues stem from a variety of different causes unique to indigenous communities such as historical trauma 70 socioeconomic disadvantage and decreased access to education and health care 71 Also this problem largely affects indigenous youth as many indigenous youth may feel disconnected from their culture 72 To combat the increased suicide rate many researchers have suggested that the inclusion of more cultural aspects into suicide prevention programs would help to combat mental health issues within the community Past studies have found that many indigenous leaders and community members do in fact want more culturally aware health care programs 73 Similarly culturally relative programs targeting indigenous youth have actively challenged suicide ideation among younger indigenous populations with many social and emotional wellbeing programs using cultural information to provide coping mechanisms and improving mental health 74 75 Viability of remote communitiesFurther information Outstation Aboriginal community Historical image of Aboriginal Australian women and children Maloga New South Wales around 1900 in European dress The outstation movement of the 1970s and 1980s when Aboriginal people moved to tiny remote settlements on traditional land brought health benefits 76 77 but funding them proved expensive training and employment opportunities were not provided in many cases and support from governments dwindled in the 2000s particularly in the era of the Howard government 78 79 80 Indigenous communities in remote Australia are often small isolated towns with basic facilities on traditionally owned land These communities have between 20 and 300 inhabitants and are often closed to outsiders for cultural reasons The long term viability and resilience of Aboriginal communities in desert areas has been discussed by scholars and policy makers A 2007 report by the CSIRO stressed the importance of taking a demand driven approach to services in desert settlements and concluded that if top down solutions continue to be imposed without appreciating the fundamental drivers of settlement in desert regions then those solutions will continue to be partial and ineffective in the long term 81 See also Australia portal Civilizations portalAboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts ACPA Aboriginal cultures of Western Australia Aboriginal South Australians Australian Aboriginal culture Australian Aboriginal kinship Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology Climate change in Australia Indigenous Australian art Indigenous Australian music First Nations Media Australia Indigenous land rights in Australia List of Aboriginal missions in New South Wales List of Indigenous Australian firsts List of massacres of Indigenous Australians Lists of Indigenous Australians National Aboriginal amp Torres Strait Islander Art Award Native title in Australia Stolen Generations Supply NationReferences Estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians Australian Bureau of Statistics June 2016 Retrieved 8 November 2018 a b 4713 0 Population Characteristics Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians Australian Bureau of Statistics 4 May 2010 Languages of Aboriginal And Torres Strait Islander Peoples a Uniquely Australian Heritage Australian Bureau of Statistics 23 November 2012 Retrieved 26 May 2015 Community identity wellbeing The report of the Second National Indigenous Languages Survey AIATSIS 2014 Archived from the original on 24 April 2015 Retrieved 18 May 2015 Graves Randin Yolngu are People 2 They 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Retrieved 20 July 2022 Almost all living people outside of Africa trace back to a single migration more than 50 000 years ago www science org Retrieved 19 August 2022 Yang Melinda A 6 January 2022 A genetic history of migration diversification and admixture in Asia Human Population Genetics and Genomics 2 1 1 32 doi 10 47248 hpgg2202010001 ISSN 2770 5005 Genetics and material culture support repeated expansions into Paleolithic Eurasia from a population hub out of Africa Vallini et al 2022 April 4 2022 Quote Taken together with a lower bound of the final settlement of Sahul at 37 ka the date of the deepest population splits estimated by Malaspinas et al 2016 it is reasonable to describe Papuans as either an almost even mixture between East Asians and a lineage basal to West and East Asians occurred sometimes between 45 and 38 ka or as a sister lineage of East Asians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution We here chose to parsimoniously describe Papuans as a simple 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General Reference Life and Times of the Gunggari People QLD Pathfinder Retrieved 29 November 2016 Monaghan Paul 2017 Chapter 1 Structures of Aboriginal life at the time of colonisation In Brock Peggy Gara Tom eds Colonialism and its Aftermath A history of Aboriginal South Australia Wakefield Press pp 10 12 ISBN 9781743054994 Walsh Michael Yallop Colin 1993 Language and Culture in Aboriginal Australia Aboriginal Studies Press pp 191 193 ISBN 9780855752415 Edwards W H 2004 An Introduction to Aboriginal Societies 2nd ed Social Science Press p 2 ISBN 978 1 876633 89 9 a b Fesl Eve D 1986 Aborigine and Aboriginal Aboriginal Law Bulletin 1986 1 20 Aboriginal Law Bulletin 10 Accessed 19 August 2011 a b Don t call me indigenous Lowitja The Age Melbourne Australian Associated Press 1 May 2008 Retrieved 12 April 2010 Solonec Tammy 9 August 2015 Why saying Aborigine isn t OK 8 facts about Indigenous people in Australia Amnesty org Amnesty International Retrieved 5 August 2020 Why do media 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doi 10 5172 jamh 3 3 138 ISSN 1446 7984 S2CID 71578621 Marrone Sonia July 2007 Understanding barriers to health care a review of disparities in health care services among indigenous populations International Journal of Circumpolar Health 66 3 188 198 doi 10 3402 ijch v66i3 18254 ISSN 2242 3982 PMID 17655060 S2CID 1720215 Isaacs Anton Sutton Keith 16 June 2016 An Aboriginal youth suicide prevention project in rural Victoria Advances in Mental Health 14 2 118 125 doi 10 1080 18387357 2016 1198232 ISSN 1838 7357 S2CID 77905930 Ridani Rebecca Shand Fiona L Christensen Helen McKay Kathryn Tighe Joe Burns Jane Hunter Ernest 16 September 2014 Suicide Prevention in Australian Aboriginal Communities A Review of Past and Present Programs Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior 45 1 111 140 doi 10 1111 sltb 12121 ISSN 0363 0234 PMID 25227155 Skerrett Delaney Michael Gibson Mandy Darwin Leilani Lewis Suzie Rallah Rahm De Leo Diego 30 March 2017 Closing the Gap in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Youth Suicide A Social Emotional Wellbeing Service Innovation Project Australian Psychologist 53 1 13 22 doi 10 1111 ap 12277 ISSN 0005 0067 S2CID 151609217 Murrup Stewart Cammi Searle Amy K Jobson Laura Adams Karen 16 November 2018 Aboriginal perceptions of social and emotional wellbeing programs A systematic review of literature assessing social and emotional wellbeing programs for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians perspectives Australian Psychologist 54 3 171 186 doi 10 1111 ap 12367 ISSN 0005 0067 S2CID 150362243 Morice Rodney D 1976 Woman Dancing Dreaming Psychosocial Benefits of the Aboriginal Outstation Movement Medical Journal of Australia AMPCo 2 25 26 939 942 doi 10 5694 j 1326 5377 1976 tb115531 x ISSN 0025 729X PMID 1035404 S2CID 28327004 Ganesharajah Cynthia April 2009 Indigenous Health and Wellbeing The Importance of Country PDF Native Title Research Report Report No 1 2009 AIATSIS Native Title Research Unit ISBN 9780855756697 Retrieved 17 August 2020 AIATSIS summary Myers Fred Peterson Nicolas January 2016 1 The origins and history of outstations as Aboriginal life projects In Peterson Nicolas Myers Fred eds Experiments in self determination Histories of the outstation movement in Australia ANU Press Monographs in Anthropology ANU Press p 2 ISBN 9781925022902 Retrieved 17 August 2020 Palmer Kingsley January 2016 10 Homelands as outstations of public policy In Peterson Nicolas Myers Fred eds Experiments in self determination Histories of the outstation movement in Australia ANU Press Monographs in Anthropology ANU Press ISBN 9781925022902 Retrieved 17 August 2020 Altman Jon 25 May 2009 No movement on the outstations The Sydney Morning Herald Retrieved 16 August 2020 Smith M S Moran M Seemann K 2008 The viability and resilience of communities and settlements in desert Australia The Rangeland Journal 30 123 doi 10 1071 RJ07048 This article incorporates text by Anders Bergstrom et al available under the CC BY 4 0 license Further reading Start exploring Australian Aboriginal culture Creative Spirits 24 December 2018 Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies AIATSIS External links Media related to Aboriginal Australians at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Aboriginal Australians amp oldid 1140974112, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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